tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-19591924015880015882024-02-20T10:28:23.249-08:00anamIrulhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14766984531916867287noreply@blogger.comBlogger5125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1959192401588001588.post-66765043451792659442010-12-23T06:10:00.000-08:002010-12-23T06:12:16.543-08:00<!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapedefaults ext="edit" spidmax="1027"> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapelayout ext="edit"> <o:idmap ext="edit" data="1"> </o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 0.2in; line-height: 150%;"><b style="">METHODELOGY IN TEACHING SECOND LANGUAGE</b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 0.2in; line-height: 150%;">Assignment 1</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Define the concepts ‘ Approach’, ‘Design’, ‘Procedure’, in relation to ‘Method’. Apply those concepts to two recognized second language-teaching practices, which require students and teacher interaction.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="position: relative; z-index: 1; left: -1px; top: 9px; width: 554px; height: 11px;"><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="554" height="2" /></span> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Method in general is the way on how to gain the goal. For example in sport training, a good trainer will teach the player some ways or techniques about how to be a good player so that they can win in a championship. The coach will use his/her methods or use another method from another success coach before. In other possibility he/she will do some experiments of some new methods. Dealing with teaching language, method is the emphasis on teacher’s ability to do what is he best way to get the good result on the student’s proficiency in linguistic. According to Rogers cited in Mangubhai (2004) stated that, “….methods are held to be fixed teaching systems with prescribed techniques and practices…”.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">According to Anthony (1963) stated that, ‘…method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all which is based upon the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic and a method is procedural. To reach the target of teaching a language, teacher needs to know about the concepts of <i>Approach</i>, <i>Design</i> and <i>Procedure</i> in relation to <b><i>Method.</i></b> By doing these ways in teaching second language, hopefully the target of teaching of the second language will have a good result on the all aspects of teaching and learning process.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <h1 style="line-height: 150%;">Approach</h1> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Approach is the way on how teaching Second Language in the class is done. There are many ways can be done by teacher to reach the goals of teaching process. According to Anthony (1963) ‘ an approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic, it describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught…’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <h1 style="line-height: 150%;">Design</h1> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In relation to methodology design means how second language teaching should be done and planned before a teacher teaching in the class. Relating to teaching methodology, it is very important, especially for the language teacher to make a plan what should be taught, how the teaching process will be and what material should be match with a certain condition. Before teaching a second language, a teacher should know the steps of teaching so the target of the teaching process will be gotten easily. Jane Willis (2001) “Materials designer have three distinct responsibilities: <i>(a)</i> providing appropriate language data for the course, <i>(b)</i> designing meaning-focused communication task arising out of those data that engaged leaner in meaning and that encourage genuine use of language, <i>(c)</i> designing form-focused language study exercise that learners’ awareness of typical and useful formal features of language”.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Objectives</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;"></span></h2> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The objectives of the process are the final aims in every activity. In the terms of teaching there are objectives that are made by a teacher what will teacher do and what students should be able to do at the end of the activity. In making design of teaching some materials, the important thing is, what are the objectives of the teaching and learning process. For example when a language teacher wants to teach about the skill on how to read effective and efficiently, what method must be chosen by a teacher to get the good result at the end of the activity. In another case if a teacher emphasis on oral skill or writing skill of course there are different objectives. Gattegno (1972) cited in J.C Richard and T.S Rogers (2001) stated that, “Learning is not seen as the means of accumulating knowledge but the means of becoming a more proficient learner in whatever one is engaged”.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><i>Syllabus</i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">As a general overview said that syllabus is kind of instructional materials that are used in teaching activity. According to J.C Richard and T.S Rogers (2001) ‘ the terms <i>syllabus has</i> been used to refer to the form in which linguistic content is specified in a course or method’. Furthermore ‘All methods thus involve overt or covert decisions concerning the selection of language items (words, sentences pattern, tenses, constructions, function, topics etc.) that are to be used within a course or method. In the following explanation the writer will tell and try to focus on Richards and Rogers Model.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">There are many theories in second language teaching which tried to explain on how the second language to be taught. One of the earliest theories was proposed by the American applied linguist Edward Antony in 1963. Another theory was proposed by Mackey in his book <i style="">Language Teaching Analysis</i> (1965). These are very popular in the model of teaching language in the 1960’s called Mackey’s Model. However, both models failed to explain the comprehensive model of teaching language. As Richards & Rodgers say: ‘ … it fails to give sufficient attention to the nature of method itself’. The role of the teachers and learners were not covered, and also how approach may be realized in a method, or how method and technique are related. Richards and Rodgers model will tell us the comprehensive model of teaching second language in the classroom.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In term of language theory, Richards & Rodgers mentioned that there are, at least, three different theoretical views of language and nature of language proficiency. The first is structural view, the view that language is a system of structurally related elements for coding of meaning. Language structure is the emphasis of teaching language. The second view is the functional view, the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. ‘This theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language’ (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). A research has been done by Wilkin’s Notional Syllabus (1976) in order to identify the implications of this view of language for syllabus design. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The third view of language is interactional view. According to this view language is as a vehicle or tool for realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. In language teaching, the learners will get involved in social interaction or real conversation. According to Richards & Rodgers these three views are incomplete and need to be completed by theories of language learning. They tried to look at some theories of language learning. For example Monitor Model by Stephen D. Krashen (1981), Tracy D. Terrel”s Natural Approach (1977) and some other theories. These theories will influence teacher’s teaching style in the classroom. Richards & Rodgers said that teachers may develop their own teaching procedures, informed by a particular view of language and particular theory of learning.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In order to have further understanding, we will look at some points of Richards & Rodgers model. According to them design is necessary to be developed for an instructional system in order for an approach to lead to a method. They described design as; (a) what the objectives of a method are; (b) how language content is selected and organized within the method, that is, the syllabus model the method incorporates; (c) the types of learning tasks and teaching activities the method advocates; (d) the role of the learners; (e) the roles of teachers; and (f) the role of instructional materials. (Richards & Rodgers, 2001)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Furthermore, it is very important to set objectives in teaching language so that the learners’ language competence could be achieved easily. Method will be needed to gain the objectives. The method used will be varying based on the objectives set out.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">Some methods focus primarily on oral skills and say that reading and writing skills are secondary and derive from transfer of oral skills. Some methods set out to teach general communication skills and give greater priority to the ability to express oneself meaningfully and to make oneself understood than to grammatical accuracy or perfect pronunciation. Others place a greater emphasis on accurate grammar and pronunciation from the very beginning. Some methods set out to reach the basic grammar and vocabulary of a language. Others may define their objectives less in linguistic term than in terms of learning behaviors, that is, in terms of the processes or abilities the learner is expected to acquire as a result of instruction. (Richards & Rodgers, 2001)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Therefore, the clear objectives will lead the teacher to the goals of language teaching in the classroom. Through the objectives the teacher, then, could use a particular method in language teaching. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The next important thing is syllabus, that is, the language content or materials what to talk about and how to talk about in language teaching. Richards & Rodgers (2001) say; ‘Methods typically differ in what they see as the relevant language and subject matter around which language teaching should be organized and the principles used in sequencing content within a course’. For example the Situational and Audiolingual method consists of a list of grammatical items and construction often together with an associated list of vocabulary items (Fries and Fries 1961; Alexander, Allen, Close, and O’Neill 1975). Notional – Functional Syllabus specify the communicative content of a course in terms of function, notions, topics, grammar, and vocabulary. However, the term of syllabus is less frequently used in process-based methods, in which considerations of language content are often secondary (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). For example in Counseling-Learning, the syllabus depends on the learners’ choice. They could decide the topics they want to talk about. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition, Richards & Rodgers explain about the types of learning and teaching activities in the classroom. According to them the objectives of the methods are attained through the instructional process, through the organized and directed interaction of the teachers, learners and materials in the classroom. It means that different method will have different kinds of language learning and teaching activity in the classroom. <span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In term of method analysis, Richards & Rodgers stated that there are three components of design. The first is learner roles which have important part in learning process. Richards & Rodgers say: ‘A method reflects explicit or implicit responses to questions concerning the learners’ contribution to the learning process’. Learners will also decide their learning program and what kind of activity they will do in the classroom. In supporting this idea, newer methodologies which more concern for learner roles and for variation among learners is stated by Johnson and Paulston (1976). They identify learner roles in the following terms: </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">(a) Learners plan their own learning program and thus ultimately assume responsibility for what they do in the classroom; (b) Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress; (c) Learners are members of a group and learn by interacting with others; (d) Learners tutor other learners; (e) Learners learn from the teacher, from other students, and from other teaching sources.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The second component is teacher roles that a teacher will influence the successful of the learning process in the classroom. It deals with how the teacher conducts the class and how she/he puts her/his functions for the learner. As Richards & Rodgers (2001) said that some methods are totally dependent on the teachers as a source of knowledge and directions; others see the teacher’s roles as catalyst, consultant, guide, and model for learning; ….’. In addition, Counseling-learning believes that the effectiveness of teacher’s roles will influence to the learners’ skills in learning the language.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 150%;" align="left">The last component is the role of instructional materials. In designing the material it needs the teacher’s ability to choose what should be taught, in what situation and to what kind of students. To what objectives will be the materials are emphasis, it also defines the goals for language leaning in terms of speaking, listening, reading and writing skill.<span style=""> </span>J.C Richard and T.S Rogers (2001) said that, “Materials designed on the assumption that learning is initiated and monitored by the teacher must meet quite different requirements from those designed for student self-instruction or for peer tutoring”. Furthermore Richards and Rogers (2001) said, “A particular design for an instructional system may imply a particular set of roles for materials in support of the syllabus and teachers and the learners. For example, the roles of instructional materials within functional/communicative methodology might be specified in the following terms:</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;" align="left"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Materials will focus on the communicative abilities of interpretation, expression, and negotiation.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;" align="left"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Materials will focus on understandable, relevant, and interesting exchanges of information, rather than on the presentation of grammatical form.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;" align="left"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Material will involve different kinds of text and different media, which the leaner can use to develop their competence through a variety of different activities and tasks”</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 150%;" align="left"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 150%;" align="left"><b><i> </i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 150%;" align="left"><b><i> </i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 150%;" align="left"><b><i>Procedure</i></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 150%;" align="left">The procedures in methodology is the actual step about techniques, practice and behaviors that is operates in teaching second language according to a particular method. How the activities in the teaching process are integrated into the lesson and used the basis for teaching and learning. According to J.C Richard and T.S Rogers (2001) they said, “There are three dimensions to a method at the level of procedures: <i>(a)</i> the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues, information-gap activities, etc) to present new language and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative or other aspects of target language; <i>(b)</i> the way in which particular teaching activities are used to practice language; <i>(c)</i> the procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners concerning the forms and content of their utterance or sentences”.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Here below are examples of procedural aspects of beginning Silent Way according to Stevick (1980) cited in J.C Richard and T.S Rogers (2001):</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>The teacher points at the meaningless symbols on the wall chart. The symbols represent the syllables of spoken language. The students read the sound aloud, first in chorus and then individually.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>After the students can pronounce the sounds, the teacher moves to a second of charts containing word frequently used in the language, including numbers. The teacher led the students to pronounce a long number.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>The teacher uses colored rods together with charts and gestures to leads the students into producing the words and basic grammatical structures needed.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Understanding the concept of approach, design and procedures in relation to method, the activity in the class will be more relevant both for the teacher and for the students. Before teaching in a classroom the teacher should make a plan for the teaching and learning process. A teacher knows how to make concepts on approach and what will be emphasized in the teaching and learning process. In designing the materials the teacher should think about; <i>objectives, syllabus, types of learning and teaching activities, learner role, teacher’s role, the role of instructional materials. </i>The last thing that a language teacher should do is doing all the component of teaching and learning activities by procedures or doing the activities in the actual steps about techniques, practice and behavior that is operates in teaching second language according to the particular method.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">References:</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Anthony, E. M. 1963. Approach, methode and technique. <i style="">English Language Teaching</i> 17: 63-67.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Fries, C. C., and A. C. Fries. <i style="">1961 Foundations for English Teaching</i>. Tokyo: Kenkyusha.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Johnson, F., and C.B. Paulston. 1976. <i style="">Individualizing in the language Classroom</i>. </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Cambridge, Mass.: Jacaranda.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Mangubhai, F. (2004) <i style="">Methodology in teaching a second language</i>. Study book, Distance Education Center, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Richards, J.C., and Rodgers, T.S. 2001. The nature of approaches and methods in language teaching. In <i style="">Approaches and methods in language teaching</i> (2<sup>nd</sup> ed.,pp. 18-35). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt;"> <!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} table.MsoTableGrid {mso-style-name:"Table Grid"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapedefaults ext="edit" spidmax="1029"> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapelayout ext="edit"> <o:idmap ext="edit" data="1"> </o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b style="">METHODELOGY IN TEACHING SECOND LANGUAGE</b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b style="">Assignment 2</b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">A. What is known about the processes of listening? Discuss factors, which affect the selection of listening activities for a group of second language learners? </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="position: relative; z-index: 3; left: -1px; top: 7px; width: 578px; height: 9px;"><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="578" height="2" /></span> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Listening is one of the important language proficiencies that need to be concerned about. The learners will communicate with others and response the information based on the language input that they get through the listening process. According to Morley (1991):”Listening can be defined broadly as “everything that impinges on the human processing which mediates between sound and the construction of meaning …. “Moreover, “everything impinges … “includes the important dimension of the affective information, which is as integral part of real world communication.”</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In the field of language teaching and learning, “listening” was neglected and supposed as unimportant part in teaching and learning language process. The most emphasis in teaching and learning language was on the structural or rules of the language. In the last twenty years, however, the ideas about language learning and language teaching have been changing along with the movements of the language theory. As Morley (1991) said that the status of listening began to change from one of neglect to one of increasing importance, as the instructional programs of 1970s expanded their pragmatic skills-focus on reading, writing, and speaking, to include listening. Listening became one of the main aspects to take account in the “modern-day or new era” of the language learning and language teaching. In the next explanation we will look at the process of listening and the important factors of listening.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">There are two ways in teaching and learning language which are used in reading as well as in listening process. These two ways of language learning are often used by the teacher in classroom in order to lead the students reach the language proficiency that is hoped. Those are called “Bottom-Up and Top-Down” processing.<span style=""> </span>Bottom-Up processing is the way on how the students analyze the sound into word then completely understand the whole meaning from the listening process. Top-Down processing is the way on how the students interpret the meaning of the sound through out the ears based on the experiences or knowledge. When the student has already heard the topic before, it will help the student understand about the topic. According to Mangubhai (2004) said that ‘<i style="">Top-Down Processing </i>is basically using your knowledge base to help you interpret the incoming aural input. In this conception, you are really sampling the incoming input to ensure that you are<span style=""> </span>constructing the correct message in your head’ and ‘<i style="">Bottom-up Processing</i><span style=""> </span>is basically the idea that you<span style=""> </span>first analyze the sounds into words, then into constituents, then into clauses to which you ascribe meanings. In this way of looking at listening comprehension, meaning resides in the sounds entering your ear which you analyze in order to derive the meaning’, <i style="">Top-down and</i> <i style="">Bottom-up Processing</i> are working together in a combine cooperative process for each second language learner.<span style=""> </span>Furthermore, Murcia (1991) said that ‘Bottom<i style="">-up </i>comprehension of speech, then, refer top the part of the process in which the understanding of incoming language is work out proceeding from sounds, into words, into grammatical relationship and lexical meaning, and so on. The composite meaning of the message is arrived at based on the incoming language data’. According to Chaudron and Richards (1986) cited in Morley (1991) ‘Top-down processing involves<span style=""> </span>prediction and inferencing<span style=""> </span>on the basis of hierarchies of facts propositions, and expectations, and it enables the listener or the reader to bypass some aspects of bottom-up processing’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In addition to this, there are some factors that should be known by the teacher in the listening activities. There are the source of the sound or speaker, the student him/herself, the material and visual support. Furthermore, Morley (1991) said that there are three perspectives on listening and language instruction, those are, listening to repeat, listening to understand, and listening as primary approach to second or foreign language learning.<span style=""> </span>These factors will affect the selection of listening activities for the second language learner.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Listening to repeat</i> means a teacher as a model gives an example on how to pronounce words, sentences or text and then the students follow a teacher on the right pronunciations. The other way on how<span style=""> </span>listening to repeat is done by the learner, a teacher might show the other example of how to pronounce by taking the tape of native speaker from the audio tape or video and TV program<span style=""> </span>which is relevant to the material being taught by the teacher. Not all teachers are native and have ability to pronounce native like so it is necessary for the teacher to get other way on how to give an example to their learner. This way is very important in the process of learning. Listening is a kind of process where the learner can imitate the right way on how to reproduce the sound given by teacher as a model or listening from tape or other kind of visual like TV, Video or film. According to Morley (1991), ‘Listening/repeating is also a technique used for pronunciation in order kinds of instructional formats. Here the learner is asked to listen, in order to “hear” a model (e.g., a sentence, a phrase, a word, a sound) and in order to reproduce it’. When the learner having chance to listen and imitate the right pronunciation in the form of a word, a phrase, a sentence will be easy for them to listen what the speaker say when they are communicating to other. As a result, a speaker understands what the learner said because they pronounce a word, a phrase and sentences in the right or good pronunciation.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Listening to understand,</i><b style=""> </b>as other source components of knowledge such as reading, through listening the learner can get the experience to understand something. For example if they travel by using plane, they will hear the announcer at the airport says ‘The flight Qz907 to Sydney is now boarding’. When they hear that announcement, they soon come through the gate and than boarding to the aircraft. This is called learning to understand. If the learner want to know something they can read words, sentences, phrase, text or they can also listen to the talker/ speaker. If the learner lose or miss the information given by speaker/talker, he will loose one of the opportunities to do something. How the important of listening to understand is not only as example above many more the learner can do, especially the instruction asked to do by the teacher on doing the exercise and as others. To listen something the learner need a special skill on the listening comprehension. According to Morley (1991), there are ‘two basic types of expected student’s response: </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>The question-oriented response model, here the students are asked to listen to an oral text (e., a sentence, a dialog / conversation, a paragraph reading, talk or lecture, then answer a series of factual (quiz-style) comprehension question on the content in order to prove that they have understood. Questions are true false, multiple choice, fill-in-the blank, short answer and similar question type borrowed from traditional reading techniques.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>The task-oriented response model. In the model, language task are set for students to complete, either individually or in small group collaborations. Basically the task are structured so<span style=""> </span>that they make use of the information<span style=""> </span>provided in the spoken text, not as an end in itself, but as resource to use in order to achieve<span style=""> </span>a communicative task outcome. The primary lesson goal is to provide learner with guide listening task experience.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Listening as primary focus in the Comprehension approach to Second/ foreign language learning.</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Different from other techniques of how the students acquire the language like reading, speaking and writing that is called oral production, Listening has special feature. Winitz (1981) cited in Murcia (1991) defined as follows: ‘in the comprehension approach a new system of learning is not really advocated. The instructional format is to extend the teaching interval of one component of training, comprehension, while delaying instruction or experience in speaking, reading, writing….the comprehension approach is cognitive in orientation. As used here, cognitive is defined as a system that gives students the opportunity to engage the problem-solving, the personal discovery of grammatical rules’</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><b style="">B. Design one lesson of 35-45 minutes in which you focus on developing the macro skill of listening and incorporate speaking as required.</b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><b style=""><u>LESSON PLAN</u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Language<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>English</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Subject<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>Listening</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Class/ year<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>3 / year 12</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Level<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>SMK / Vocational High school</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 81pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1in; line-height: 150%;">Topic<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>Advertisement</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Lesson Length<span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>45 minutes</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Objectives<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>: <span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Students are able to get the right information about the product in the advertisement.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Students are able to match the picture with the right advertisement.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Students are able to make advertisement in their own word.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 22pt; line-height: 150%;">ADVERTISEMENT</span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 22pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="position: relative; z-index: 1;"><span style="position: absolute; left: -1px; top: -1px; width: 582px; height: 90px;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border: 0.75pt solid black; vertical-align: top; background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white;" width="582" bgcolor="white" height="90"><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 1;"> <table width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div style="padding: 4.35pt 7.95pt;" class="shape"> <p class="MsoNormal">What do you usually do before you do shopping? How do you get information of new products? Many of us make a shopping list and the others have fixed about what they are going to buy. Since they have got information from advertisements, it makes them easy to get what they need.</p> </div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span></span> </p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="">Activity 1</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>You will hear four statements corresponding to the pictures in your book and choose the best statement that goes to each.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <table class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="width: 239.4pt; border: medium none; padding: 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image003.jpg" width="250" height="198" /><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"></span></p> </td> <td style="width: 239.4pt; border: medium none; padding: 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image005.jpg" width="211" height="199" /><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; letter-spacing: 1.5pt;">1.A B C D<span style=""> </span>2. A B C D</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; letter-spacing: 1.5pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"> </span></p> <table class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="width: 239.4pt; border: medium none; padding: 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image007.jpg" width="205" height="246" /><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"></span></p> </td> <td style="width: 239.4pt; border: medium none; padding: 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top" width="319"> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image009.jpg" width="241" height="260" /><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial;"></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial; letter-spacing: 1.5pt;">3. A B C D<span style=""> </span>4. A B C D</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Activity 2</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>You will read an advertisement of Nutrima. The sentences, however, are not well-ordered. Please rearrange them into a good advertisement.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.15in 0.3in; text-indent: -0.3in;"><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image011.jpg" width="256" align="left" height="160" hspace="12" />a. It will make kids healthy and smart.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.15in 0.3in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.3in;">b. It's not so expensive and easy to get it in</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.15in 0.3in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.3in;"><span style=""> </span>any supermarket.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.15in 0.3in; text-indent: -0.3in;">c. Nutrima Kid is very good for children.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.3in; text-indent: -0.3in;">d. It's rich with vitamins and calories.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Activity 4</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">v<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>In groups of four, make persuasion to promote your products based on the pictures bellow.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">1.<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>2.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image013.jpg" width="255" height="216" /><span style=""> </span><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image015.jpg" width="211" height="255" /><span style=""> </span><i style=""><span style="font-size: 13pt; font-family: Arial; letter-spacing: 0.1pt;"></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">References:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Canale, M. & Swain, M (1980) Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. <i style="">Applied Linguistics</i>,<i style="">1</i>(1), pp1-47.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (Dirjen Dikdasmen, Dirjen Dimenjur) (2000), Global Acces to the World of Work. PPSKJ, Jakarta.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Mangubhai, F. (2004) <i>Methodology in Teaching a Second Language,</i> Study book, Distance Education Center, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Morley, J. (1991) Listening comprehension in second/foreign language instruction. In Murcia, M.C. (Ed.), <i style="">Teaching English as Second Language or Foreign Language</i> (pp81-93) Heinle & Heinle Publisher, Boston, Massachusetts 02116.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Richards, J.C., and Rodgers, T.S. 2001. The nature of approaches and methods in language teaching. In <i style="">Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching</i> (2<sup>nd</sup> ed.,pp. 18-35). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">University of Southern Queensland, (2003) Audio Tape LIN 5002 <i style="">Introduction to Course Distance Education Center</i>, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">University of Southern Queensland, (2003) <i>The Nature of Language</i> <i>(Selected Reading)</i> Distance Education Center, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Website <a href="http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp./jalt/pub/tlt/00/feb/willis.html">http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp./jalt/pub/tlt/00/feb/willis.html</a></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p><p class="MsoNormal"><!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapedefaults ext="edit" spidmax="1028"> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapelayout ext="edit"> <o:idmap ext="edit" data="1"> </o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal">ASSIGNMENT 3</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Prepare two consecutive lessons of 45-60 minutes each in which you develop the macroskills of reading and writing. Your assignment will be assessed on how well you have managed to combine theory and practice. Design your lessons wisely so that they show your knowledge of theory and its application clearly in terms of language learning outcomes, such that another teacher could implement your lesson plan.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="position: relative; z-index: 1; left: -1px; top: 4px; width: 578px; height: 6px;"><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="578" height="2" /></span> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">READING</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Teaching reading is one of the main language skills that should be thoughtfully by the language teacher. Before we decide the lesson plan of teaching reading, it is very important to know the concept of reading process. According to Manghubai (2004) “… the emphasis in reading was on the text, the meaning resided in the text-all one had to do was decode the text.” When the students were studying reading text, they will concern to the meaning of every single word in the text. This process of reading is called<i style=""> bottom-up processing</i>. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">While Goodman (1967.p.498) cited in Manghubai (2004,p. 4.4) says: </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">Reading is a selective process. It involves partial use of available minimal language cues selected from perceptual input on the basis of the reader’s expectation. As this partial information is processed, tentative decisions are made to be confirmed, rejected, or refined as reading progresses.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">More simply stated, reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game. It involves an interaction between thought and language.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition, Manghubai (2004) says: “… children were not simply reading the printed word: they were actively constructing what they were reading in their heads.” They will understand the meaning of the reading text by using all of information they had in their heads. This process of reading is called <i style="">top-down processing</i>.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In the movement of teaching reading theory, researchers discovered the new perspective on reading process which is well known as <i style="">interactive model of reading.</i> As Manghubai (2004) said that in the process of reading, we use all of our sources of knowledge, the visual and also what we have in our heads to comprehend. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">WRITING</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Writing became a common difficulty for the language learner. Writing is not only composing letters into a word and words into sentence. But it is comprehension process which involves knowledge and skills such as grammar, how to compose writing orderly, how to explore and express their ideas. In English second language learner, for example, it is very important for them to know how the native behavior in composing writing.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In the next explanation I will present lesson of reading and writing in class consecutively for 60 minutes each.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">READING LESSON</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Topic: TRANSPORTATION</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Level Of student: 3<sup>rd</sup> level of senior high school</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Duration: 60 minutes</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Pre Reading (Warm-up questions, 10 minutes)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In the beginning of the lesson, the teacher will show some pictures, symbols and clues about transportation means. Then the teacher will ask the students some questions and discuss about it for about 10 minutes. This process is very important to do in reading lesson in order to lead the students focus on the topic and collect all their knowledge about transportation. So they will be able to understand the meaning of reading text easily.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Reading the text and discuss (20 minutes)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The next step is reading the text. The teacher will ask some students to read the text. This activity will drill them how to read correctly and train them to understand the meaning of the text they were reading. The teacher will ask them to guess what they understand about the text. They will discuss with others and the teacher will guide them to understand the meaning of the text.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Asking objective questions (10 minutes)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In this section the students will answer the questions by state them true or false. This process will stimulate the student’s understanding about the text. Through this process the students are hoped to be able to understand completely and get all information of the text correctly.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Post reading (Answering essay questions – 20 minutes)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In this section the students are hoped to be able to answer the questions correctly as well as write in good structure.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">WRITING LESSON</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 1 (20 minutes)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In the beginning of the lesson the teacher will ask the students some vocabularies about transportation. Then ask them to complete the sentences using the appropriate words. In this activity the students will able to use their knowledge about some vocabularies on transportation. For the students who do not understand the meaning of the words, they can ask their friend or look up the dictionary and try to practice them in the sentences. So they get the right meaning of the words and understand how to use it in a sentence.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 2</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Students are asked to write a short conversation asking about “distance and transportation means”.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">For example: How long does it takes ……………..?</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>How do you go to ……………..?</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 3</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The next step is the teacher will ask the students to write one or two paragraph about transportation they use in their city/village. This topic will help students to write paragraph easily, because they have already had their knowledge and information about the topic in their heads. They just need to express and compose in a good writing.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><b style=""><u>LESSON PLAN</u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Language<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>English</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Subject<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>READING AND WRITING</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Class/ year<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>3 / year 12</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Level<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>SMK / Vocational High school</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 81pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1in; line-height: 150%;">Topic<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>:<span style=""> </span>TRANSPORTATION</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Lesson Length :<span style=""> </span>60 minutes X 2</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Objectives<span style=""> </span>:</p> <ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Students are able to answer the warm-up question.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Students are able to understand the topic of the text correctly.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Students are able to answer the objective test correctly.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Students are able to answer the post reading question.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Students are able to understand some vocabularies about transportation.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Students are able to ask and answer questions about distance and transportation means.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Students are able to practice writing short paragraph about transportation.</li></ul> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">READING</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 1</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Look at the picture and answer the warm-up questions! (Pre- reading)</p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">What do you know about transportation?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Do you think transportation is necessary for all of us? Why?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Mention some kinds of transportation that you know?</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 2</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Read the text carefully!</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center">TALKING ABOUT TRANSPORTATION</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In the business world, transportation is believed to be a vital means of conveying things and people. We all know that most of the business activities are closely dependent upon it to move goods faster from one place to another. So in terms of time it has drastically reduced distance and speeded up mobility.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">There are several ways of transporting goods, but the three most important are by land, by sea and by air. Now let us know when and where each of them can be used effectively and efficiently.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Transport by land is very extensive in the home trade and continental countries. Road transport is fast over short distances. It is flexible with door to door delivery and no need a fixed timetable. Train transport is usually quicker than road transport for distances over 200 miles. Bulky goods such as coal can be transported cheaply by train.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Transport by sea is the most effective method for the countries which consist of many islands. Sea transport is much slower than air, but it is cheaper for goods and can carry heavier loads. Some goods such as oil are transported is specially-designed ships.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Transport by air is now increasing in scope. It is the quickest form of transport for international or long-cross country journeys. However, it is also expensive, particularly for example, transporting computers by air will be much cheaper than by ship if it is considered from every aspect.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 3</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Say whether these statements are TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) in your opinion.</p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">T – F Thousands of years ago, most of people had to walk because there was no transportation.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">T – F Nowadays, transportation has already become an integral part of our everyday life.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">T – F Transportation by road is very necessary in a country with many islands.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">T – F Almost everyone needs transportation when they go to distance places.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>T – F Transportation by sea is the most effective way in an archipelago country.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>T – F Transportation by air is very dangerous because it may cause a lot of accidents.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">T – F Transportation by air is the quickest form for international journeys.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">T – F It takes us only a few days to travel around the world by modern transportation.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 4 (Post reading)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Answer the following questions base on the reading text above!</p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">What do you believe about transportation to be in the business world?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Why do most of the business activities depend on transportation?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">What is the advantage of transportation in term of time?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Where is transport by road and train widely used?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">What transport is the most effective for the countries with many islands?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Why is the sea transport often used for carrying heavier loads to other countries?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">What is the quickest transport for international and long-cross country journey?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">What kinds of goods are often cheaper if they are sent by air?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">What does the word “it” in the first paragraph refers to?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">What is the main idea of the last paragraph?</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">WRITING</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 1</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Complete these sentences using the appropriate wards from the box.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="position: relative; z-index: 2; left: -1px; top: 7px; width: 582px; height: 85px;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border: 0.75pt solid black; vertical-align: top; background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% white;" width="582" bgcolor="white" height="78"><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 2;"> <table width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div style="padding: 4.35pt 7.95pt;" class="shape"> <p class="MsoNormal">trip<span style=""> </span>voyage<span style=""> </span>traveling</p> <p class="MsoNormal">world<span style=""> </span>transport<span style=""> </span>bus station</p> <p class="MsoNormal">journey<span style=""> </span>passengers<span style=""> </span>railway station</p> </div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">1. Buses, trains and cars are means of ………………………</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">2. When you want to go by bus, you go to a …………………</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">3. When you want to go bay train, you go to ………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">4. When you are going to fly, you are one of the ……………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">5. By palne we can fly to most of places in the ………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">6. We say then that we are going on a …………………….</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">7. When we go by boat, we call it a ………………………….</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">8. A journey which is not so long is called a …………………..</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">9. Going to other places is called ………………</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 2 (15 minutes)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Write questions and answers as the example.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">A: How long does it takes by plane from London to Madrid?</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">B: It takes two hours by plane from London to Madrid.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">A: How do we go to Tanjung Selor?</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">B: We go to Tanjung Selor by boat.</p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">(by car/Bandung/Bogor-four hours)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">(by boat/Bali/Lombok/went/I/to?</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">(by train/Jakarta/Surabaya-eight hours)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">(bicycle/your house/your work-half an hour)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">(by bus/the city centre/the airport-fifty minutes)</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Activity 3 (25 minutes)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Write a short paragraph about transportation in your city/village. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">References:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (Dirjen Dikdasmen, Dirjen Dimenjur) (2000), <i style="">Global Acces to the World of Work</i>. PPSKJ, Jakarta.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Goodman (1967.p.498). Reading: a psycholinguistic guessing game. <i style="">Journal of the Reading Specialist</i>. In Manghubai (2004,p. 4.4) <i>Methodology in Teaching a Second Language,</i> Study book, Distance Education Center, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Lukman, D.,P.K. (2003). Step by Step 3. English for vocational school. <i style="">Towards the world of professional workers</i>. Humaniora Utama Press, BANDUNG.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Mangubhai, F. (2004) <i>Methodology in Teaching a Second Language,</i> Study book, Distance Education Center, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p>Irulhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14766984531916867287noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1959192401588001588.post-58624790086134477452010-12-23T06:08:00.000-08:002010-12-23T06:10:03.002-08:00PRINCIPLES OF SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left;" align="left"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PRINCIPLES OF SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING</span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left;" align="left"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">COMPARING AND CONTRASTING CHILD FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND ADULT SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Discussing about first language acquisition and second language acquisition is such a never-ending topic to discuss about. There have been a significant number of researches in child first language acquisition during the last forty years. Each of them came out with theory on how human (child in particular) learnt the language. There are three major researches on first language acquisition, which are very popular with the theory of nativist, behavioristic, and functional. Each of them tried to explain how the language is acquired in different point of views.</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Based on the theory of first language acquisition, there might be similarities and differences in second language acquisition. There are some factors that we can compare and contrast in first language acquisition and second language acquisition. The comparison of first and second language acquisition can easily be oversimplified. At least we can approach the comparison by first considering the differences between children and adults. It is obviously stated that there are some considerations relating to psychomotor development, critical period hypothesis and neurological considerations. In addition, there are considerations relating to cognitive factors and linguistic factors. Furthermore, effective factors are also importance factor to compare and contrast. In order to focus discussion, I will lead my essay in comparing and contrasting child first language acquisition and adult second language acquisition against those five factors mentioned above.</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style=""> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">Considerations Relating to Psychomotor Development</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">It is obviously true to say that the development of skill performance in every field required physical changes, the earlier child get skill training will be better result than start in adult. A football player, for example, will develop his physical maximally when he was child rather than he start to play football when he was adult. His physical skill in playing football developed naturally through the age.</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">It is the same case in language development, our speech need coordination of multiple muscles in thorax, throat, larynx, mouth, lips, tongue, and so on. In the period of three months to ten months, a baby usually start to produce sound which is called ‘<i style="">cooing</i>’ such as consonant (k) and (g) as well as high vowel such as (i) and (u). By six months, the child will grow up as well as the speech muscles. They can produce some sounds such as <i style="">da-da, ma-ma</i>, which is described as ‘<i style="">babbling’</i>. As a result they can manipulate muscles to produce sounds that reflect a language. These speech muscles gradually develop until neurological pathways have been developed facilitating the production of the sounds of the first language.</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Adult second language learners have already developed their speech muscles pattern for their first language and have to begin consciously to develop another set of patterns for the second language. Just as previous example of untrained football player so he has to have an intensive training and exercise his muscles. The adult second language learners must be able to overcome the patterns that have been established by first language and learn to move differently for certain sounds in second language. Most of the adult second language learners will get difficulties in pronouncing sounds like a native speaker. Even in ideal acquisition situations, very few adult learners seem to reach native-like proficiency in using a second language. (George Yule, 1991, p.191) He stated that adults’ tongue ‘get stiff’ from pronouncing one type of language (e.g. English) and just can not cope with the new sounds of another language (e.g. French or Japanese). In the case of Indonesian English adult learners, for example, they rarely are able to speak like an English native speaker because their speech muscles have already developed in Indonesian mother tongue.</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">Critical Period Hypothesis and Neurological Considerations</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">One of the most debatable in second language acquisition is whether there is biologically determined critical period for language learning beyond which it is more difficult to acquire a language. Or to put it alternatively, whether there is critical age before which it is easier to acquire the language. The general belief is that during childhood (up until puberty), there is a period when the human brain is most ready to ‘receive’ and learn a particular language. This period is referred to as the critical period. If a child does not acquire language during this period for any one of a number of reasons, then s/he will have great difficulty learning language later on.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The most popular example of critical period hypothesis is the story of ‘Genie’, which has been documented by Curtiss (1977). Genie lived away from other social contacts even with her parent. The only contact is with her mother who gave her a little language input. Genie has spent her whole life in a state of physical, sensory, social and emotional deprivation. When she was first brought into care, she was unable to use language. Within a short period of time, however, she began to respond to the speech of others, to try to imitate sounds and to communicate. In fact she has got many difficulties and lacks of language outputs.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The issue of critical period is associated with brain lateralization, the term used to denote that neurological functions have been assigned to the two halves of the brain. Based on brain research we know that some functions are assigned to the right side of the brain while others, for example language, are assigned to the left side. Penfield and Roberts (1959) argued that the optimum age for language acquisition falls within the first ten years of life. During this period the brain retains plasticity, but with the onset of puberty this plasticity begins to disappear. Furthermore, they suggested that this was the result of the lateralization of the language function in the left hemisphere of the brain. That is, the neurological capacity for understanding and producing language, which initially involved both hemisphere of the brain. The increased difficulty which older learners supposedly experience was seen as a direct result of this neurological change.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Some evidence to support the critical period hypothesis was supplied by Lenneberg (1967). He found that injuries to the right hemisphere caused more language problems in children than in adults. He suggested that the process of lateralization begins at about age of two and is completed at around puberty, hence his suggestion of critical period at about puberty. The conclusion about a critical period was based on observation of patients who had suffered damage to the left hemisphere of the brain. It was found that if the patients were young, that is, had not reached puberty<span style=""> </span>the chance that they would recover all language abilities were high. It seemed that the right hemisphere learned to do what the left did. On the other hand if the damage occurred after puberty then there was a strong likelihood that not all language functions would be regained. Krashen (1973) has argued that the lateralization process is complete by about the age of five because there are signs of hemisphere evident by then.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The debate over lateralization and its effects continue to be argued in the field of second language acquisition though most agree that if there were a critical period associated with lateralization of the brain it seems to affect pronunciation rather than the acquisition of syntax and semantic of second language. Scovel (1988,p.101) argues that pronunciation requires the operation of the neuromotor mechanism of brain resulting in physical movement, whereas the acquisition of syntax or lexis is not related to physical movements. They are exclusively cerebral and psychological.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Opposed to the arguments that seems to support some form of critical period hypothesis is the evidence from learners who might begin their second language later in his life but who acquire very high levels of syntactic knowledge (Birdsong, 1992), or native-like pronunciation (Bongaerts, Van Summeren, Planken & Schils, 1997).</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">From the evidence and arguments of some researchers above we can conclude that there is pro and contra about critical period hypothesis. However, these will be the advantages for language acquisition research. As Birdsong (1999, p.8) quoted on his book after he has surveyed the range of ideas in the different chapters presented by different researchers; “<i style="">Each of these chapters, whether anti-or pro critical period hypothesis-second language acquisition, illustrates the richness, depth, and breadth of critical period inquiry. Collectively, they testify to the unmistakable centrality of CPH in L2A research”.</i></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <h1 style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">Considerations Relating to Cognitive Factors</span></h1> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Human cognition develops rapidly throughout the first sixteen years of life and less rapidly thereafter. The cognitive development of the child occurs at the same time that the language development occurs. Some cognitive changes are critical; others are more gradual and difficult to detect. According to the functional explanations of language development one could say that the child learns the next stage of language because the cognitive development demands that level of linguistic complexity. An adult, on the other hand, has already developed cognitively and has a language to express his or her thoughts.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">One of the most significant arguments is given by Piaget on his research. In the early 1900s, Piaget followed the development of his three children. Piaget (see Piaget & Inheder, 1996) suggests that cognitive or intellectual development follows the following path;</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">a sensori-motor stage between the ages of<span style=""> </span>0 and 2 years</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">a pre-operational stage between ages 2 and 7</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">a concrete operational stage from around 11 years</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">a formal operational stage from around 11 years when children become capable to abstraction</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">According to Piaget a critical stage for a consideration of the effects of age on second language acquisition appears to occur at puberty. It is here that a person becomes capable of abstraction of formal thinking, which transcends concrete experience and direct perception.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">One obvious difference between the young child and adult is the ability of the latter to comprehend language as a formal system. Adult learners can learn about language by consciously studying linguistic rules. They can also apply these rules when they use the language. In contrast, children are not so prone to respond to language as form. For them language is a tool for expressing meaning. As Halliday (1973) pointed out, the young child responds not so much to what language is as to what it does. It is possibly that age differences in second language acquisition can be explained in term of the different orientation to language of children and adults learners.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">One could associate the formal operational stage to the critical period hypothesis and argue that learners at puberty begin to analyze the second language more consciously. It is for this reason that it has been argued that there is little value in teaching children the grammar of the language, which is an abstract system, until they rich puberty at which they can deal with abstractions. Adults, therefore, bring a superior cognitive apparatus to the task of second language learning but are often not very successful in this learning. Many adults are frustrated by their more developed capability for complex proportions (or ideas) with limited second language proficiency that prevents them from conveying them. In a sense, second language learners are reduced to operating cognitively at children’s levels of thinking. This is a great source of frustration for some adult learners.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">Consideration Relating to Linguistic Factors</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">An adult second language learner is different from child in acquiring his/her first language. Adult second language learners already have a well-developed linguistic system. There are few documented examples of adults acquiring a second language naturalistically, which is not in a formal program in a classroom. Schmidt (1983) who studied a Japanese artist called Wes who had migrated from Tokyo to Hawaii documented one of the examples of adult second language acquisition. Wes showed little enthusiasm for any formal English language study. He prefers to acquire language naturally. Schmidt claims that during three years observation period Wes’s grammatical control of the English language barely improved and little grammar had been acquire. It was not the case that Wes kept himself separate from English speakers and only mixed socially with Japanese in Honolulu. On the other hand, Schmidt reports that he tended to eschew the company of Japanese and mix socially with the English-speaking people. Despite receiving large amounts of input, there was little grammatical development.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">The effect of first language on second language acquisition is unavoidable as interference first language to second language. It is assumed that the second language learners would show the tendency to transfer first language features to their second language productions. Adults second language linguistic process are more vulnerable to the effect of the first language on second language. Adults more cognitively secure, appear to operate from solid foundation of the first language and thus manifest more interference. But it was pointed earlier that adults manifest errors not unlike some of the errors children make. It is now known, however, that not all errors made by second language learners caused by interference from their first language. There is also a greater awareness that first language interference manifest itself not only syntactic level, but also at phonological, morphological, lexical and pragmatic levels (James, 1980; Mangubhai, 1997).<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">Considerations Relating to Affective Factors</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">One of the most complex considerations in comparing and contrasting child first language acquisition and adult second language is relating to affective factors. This issue has been discussing by many researchers in second language acquisition. The results, however, are varies sorts of views because there is no one perfect answer against to this issue. At least we can conclude that these factors are such as self-esteem, inhibition, anxiety, attitude to speakers of the language one is learning, are exist in first and second language learners.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">For most children the development of first language occurs within a very interesting environment where the children are the focus of the parents and other adults around them. During this period child has language ego as Brown (2000) stated that very young children are highly <i style="">egocentric</i>. The world revolves about them, and they see all events as focusing on themselves. It means that they do everything right, they speak the language properly. They do not care about the errors they make. Younger children are less frightened because they are less aware of language forms, and the possibility of making mistakes in those forms does not concern them greatly. Egocentricism is probably best in developing cognitive skills because there is no room for doubt oneself. The child does not see the viewpoint of others or take the role of another.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">Adults, however, has acute awareness of self and how this self will be perceived by others. Comparison and judgements are made, sometimes erroneously, about other people and their ability and their self-concept. One of the behavioral outcomes of adults is that any occasion that might make a negative revelation about them is avoided or minimized. Hence adults learning a second language are less likely to see making mistakes as a normal part of second language learning. Those adults who have some difficulties initially in differentiating sounds of the second language may give up learning the language, quite frequently citing as an excuse not having a talent for languages. Seeming to appear foolish acts as a prohibitive factor in language learning for many adult learners.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: left; line-height: 200%;" align="left">In conclusion, comparing and contrasting child first language acquisition and adult second language acquisition are different in many aspects. Adults psychomotor have already developed by their first language, which caused difficulties in acquiring second language, while children do not have difficulties. Critical period hypothesis (CPH) exists, although some researchers have argued about it. And cognitively adults have advantages in learning language but children are less experiences and developing cognitive skill. In addition adults have a developed linguistic system background but it has interference, though, for second language acquisition. The last aspect, which commonly occurs, is affective factors. Adult learners tend to have high affective factors involved in acquiring the language. It is totally different from children who have high language ego, motivation, and good attitude to speak the language.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">References:</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Brown, R. (1973). A first language. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style=""> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">D’Anglejan, A. (1978). Language learning in and out of classroom. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dulay, H. and Burt, M. (1974). Natural sequences in child second language acquisition. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dulay, H. and Burt, M. (1975). A new approach to discovering universal strategies of child second language acquisition. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Krashen</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, S.D.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (1995). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: normal;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: normal;">Mangubhai, F. (2003). <i style="">Principles of Second Language Learning.</i> Study Book, Distance Education Centre, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: normal;">Schachter, J. (1998). Recent research in language learning studies: promises and problems. In Mangubhai, F. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles of Second Language Learning.</i> Study Book, Distance Education Centre, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Stevick, E. (1976) Memory, meaning, and method. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The University of South Queensland (2003). <i style="">Principles of Second Language Learning</i>. Selected Readings, Distance Education Centre, USQ, Toowoomba.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style=""> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoBodyText"><b style="">THE PRICIPLES OF SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING</b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style="">MONITOR MODEL (KRASHEN’S HYPOTHESIS) AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING<span style=""> </span></b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: center;" align="center"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">Many researches have been done in the field of second language acquisition. It becomes new field for many experts in education and linguistics to do research. As Schachter (1998) cites in Francis Mangubhai (2003, p.4.1) who says: ‘Second language acquisition (SLA) is generally regarded as being young field, not more than 30 years old’. As a result, many theories about SLA were born. Each of them tried to look at the fact of how second language can be acquired. One theory may works and able to explain in some areas of SLA aspects, the other areas will be covered by the other theories. There is no one perfect theory in SLA, which can cover the whole aspects of SLA. However, we can find whether one theory, in a classroom process in particular, is working or not. In this case the author will look at one of the psycholinguistic theories that argued by Stephen D. Krashen. At last the author will look at the implications of this theory in second language teaching in a classroom process. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">In explaining this theory Stephen D. Krashen divided his theory into five hypotheses, they are:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Learning/Acquisition Hypothesis</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Natural Order Hypothesis</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Monitor Hypothesis</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Input Hypothesis</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Affective Filter Hypothesis</span></p> <h1>Learning / Acquisition Hypothesis</h1> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">Stephen D. Krashen makes the distinction between learning and acquisition. According to him (1995, p.10.) “there are two independent ways of developing ability in second languages. The first way is acquisition, a subsconcious process identical in all important ways to the process children utilize in acquiring their first language”. In subsconcious process we usually did not realize that we acquired the language, but we realize that we can use the language for communication. In acquiring the language, errors can be detected only by “feel”, it is correct, it sounds correct. In addition of it, acquisition is implicit learning, informal learning and natural learning.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">The second way is learning, it is the opposite of acquisition process. According to Krashen (1995) “learning is conscious knowledge of second language”. The language is mastered by learning it. We learn the whole aspects and rules of the language. Error correction is thoughtfully in learning process. It will help the learner to the right form of the language rules. Krashen gave an example when a student of English as a second language says “I goes to school everyday”’ and a teacher will correct him/her by repeating the sentence in the correct way. Then the errors will not happen again in the future or in the next utterance.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">From these two distinctions we can conclude that learning is separated from acquisition. It means that acquisition can not happen in learning process. Francis Mangubhai (2003) says “This hypothesis does not preclude the possibility of acquisition taking place in the classroom provided it is communicatively oriented and the focus of activities in the classroom is on meaning and not on practicing language structure”.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Natural Order Hypothesis</span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">This hypothesis (Krashen, 1995) believes that “the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order”.<span style=""> </span>The acquirers tend to acquire language rules in an order. For example in English structure, students in a classroom tend to acquire rule of present progressive, then move to another rules. As Brown (1973) in Krashen (1995) reported that “children acquiring English as a first language tended to acquire certain grammatical morphemes, or functions words, earlier than others. For example the progressive marker /ing/ and the plural marker /s/ were the first morphemes acquired, while the third person singular marker /s/ is typically acquired later”.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">Another argument was delivered by Dulay and Burf (1974, 1975) in Krashen (1995) who reported that “children acquiring English as a second language also show ‘a natural order’ for grammatical morphemes regardless of their first language”. They found that the child second language order of acquisition was different from the first language order, but different group of second language acquirers<span style=""> </span>showed striking similarities. At last Krashen conclude that “the order of acquisition from second language is not the same as the order of acquisition for first language, but there are some similarities”.(Krashen, 1995)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <h1>The Monitor Hypothesis</h1> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">This hypothesis tells us about acquisition competence and learning competence. The utterances that we ‘pick-up’ came from the subsconcious process, that is, acquisition. Then learning will process the utterances through the monitor for correct utterances. As Krashen (1995) states on “the monitor hypothesis posits that acquisition “initiates” our utterances in a second language an is responsible for our fluency. Learning has only one function and that is as a monitor or editor. Learning comes into play only to make changes in the form of our utterances, after it has been “produced” by the acquired system. This can happen before we speak or write, or after (self-correction)”. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">Furthermore, Krashen explain about the individual variation in monitor use for second language speakers. He divided into three types of monitor – users:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Monitor over-users. This type of monitor users occurs when the people were speaking in second language with high control. While speaking they were always monitoring their utterances for correctness. As a result, (Krashen, 1995) “such performers may speak hesitantly, often self-correct in the middle of utterances, and are so concerned with correctness that they can not speak with any real fluency”.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Monitor under-users. The speakers prefer not to use their conscious knowledge to control their utterances. They use feeling for correctness. Krashen (1995) says “under-user are typically uninfluenced by error correction, can self-correct only by using a “feel” for correctness”.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The optimal monitor-users. The speakers are able to use their monitor appropriately. They know when they have to use monitor or not. This is very unusual in second language acquirers. If it occurs, “we might consider these people “super monitor users” cites Yorio (1978) in Krashen (1995, p.19.).</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <h1>The Input Hypothesis</h1> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style=""> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">Stephen D. Krashen took a long discussion on the input hypothesis. He tried to explain and correlated his other hypothesis with the input hypothesis. Perhaps this hypothesis is the most significant Krashen’s theories in explaining how people acquire the language. He says;”[t]he input hypothesis attempts to answer what is perhaps the most important question in our field, and gives an answer that has a potential impact on all areas of language learning”.(Krashen, 1995, p.20.)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">In order to simplify the discussion, the author will only take some points of the input hypothesis as follows:</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>We acquire the language through the natural order, that is, we move from one stage to the next stage. Or as Krashen says: ”More generally, how do we move from stage <i style="">i</i>, where I represents current competence, to <i style="">i</i> + 1, the next level?”<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>The input is comprehensive, in this case the role of “caretaker speech” will influence the language outcome (utterances). Krashen says: “The input hypothesis predicts that caretaker speech will be very useful for the child”. The more child get comprehensible input, the higher stage will be, move from <i style="">i</i> to <i style="">i</i> + 1.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText"><b style="">The Affective Filter Hypothesis</b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">This hypothesis tells us about how affective factors relate to the second language acquisition process. Krashen (1995, p. 31.) mentioned three categories:</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Motivation. Performers with high motivation generally do better in second language acquisition (usually, but not always, “integrative”).</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Self – confidence. Perfomers with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to do better in second language.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Anxiety. Low anxiety appears to be conducive to second language acquisition, whether measured as personal or classroom anxiety.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">Krashen also called those three categories as attitudinal factors, which directly relate to acquisition and not learning. The strength or level of affective filters will influence the acquirers’ utterances. As Krashen (1995) mentions: “Those whose attitudes are not optimal for second language acquisition, will not only tend to seek less input, but they will also have a high or strong Affective Filter-even if they understand the message, the input will not reach that part of the brain responsible for language acquisition or the language acquisition device”.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">Furthermore, he said that ‘those with attitudes more conducive to second language acquisition will not only seek and obtain more input, they will also have a lower or weaker filter. They will be more open to the input, and it will stike ‘deeper’”.(Stevick, 1976) cites in Krashen (1995, p. 31.)</p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText"><b style="">The Implications of<span style=""> </span>Krashen’s Hypothesis in Second Language Teaching in A Classroom</b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoBodyText">After reading and analyzing those hypotheses above, the author finds some implications of those hypotheses, which relate to the second language teaching in a classroom. Based on the experience of the author in teaching second language (English) in a classroom, those hypotheses seem working in some areas or aspects of teaching second language in a classroom. The author will try to explain and describe the implications briefly, and support it with simple examples, which occur in teaching and learning process in a classroom as bellow.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">First of all, we will look back to the distinction between acquisition and learning made by Krashen (1995). The distinction was very clear, and according to him “learning does not become acquisition” cites Mangubhai (2003). However, when we look at the learning process of second language in a classroom, the author finds difficulties in differentiating both learning and acquisition. It seemed both learning and acquisition were running together along with the process of teaching language in a classroom. Both subconscious and conscious processes occur slightly in the same time. Therefore, Mangubhai (2003, p. 4.6.) “…it is very difficult to distinguish learning and acquisition to be able to conduct some research on it”. Or as McLaughlinn (1978; 1987) cites in Mangubhai (2003, p. 4.6.) “has put it there needs to be some objective way of knowing the difference between the two so that one can apply the test of falsifiability. Alternative frameworks have been suggested by critics that explain how learning can become acquisition, if acquisition is defined as more fluent (i.e. more automatic) language behaviour”. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">The next is the implication of the natural order hypothesis in teaching second language in a classroom. In very simple sight, the author sees that the students were learning the language (English) in an order. For example, the students usually start learning with some expression of simple present or present continuous tense with marked “ing”. Then they will try to recognize another marks of language rules such as /s/ for plural and third person singular mark. As Brown (1973) reported in Krashen (1995) who says,”children acquiring English as first language tended to acquire certain grammatical morphemes, or function words, earlier than others”. In addition of it, Krashen (1995) sees “ the order of acquisition for second language is not the same as the order of acquisition for first language, but there are some similarities”. Perhaps we can also look at how the child (our child in particular) acquired the first language. Seemed to the author that they acquired the first language in an order, started form simple words, morphemes moved to another ones, as well as students learn the language in a classroom. </p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">When we look at how the monitor hypothesis working in teaching language in a classroom, the author found some students who have good knowledge in English, if we look at the test achievements, but they could not speak fluently. Because, they were afraid of being mistaken, and tried to speak in correct English structure. Or there are some students who could speak English very confidence and fluent. Although there are some mistakes occurred in the utterances, but they neglected of being mistaken. Based on these facts, the author believes that the monitor hypothesis implement in teaching second language in a classroom. However, Mangubhai (2003) it has been pointed out that “it is frequently difficult to tell whether a person is monitoring using a ‘feel’ for the language (i.e. using the acquired system) or using the learned system”, cited from (d’Anglejean, 1981; Rivers, 1980).</p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">The last two hypotheses are input hypothesis and affective filter. The author will look at the implications of these two hypotheses in one session. Because according to the author both hypotheses have correlation with language input. The most interesting point in input hypothesis is the role of ‘caretaker speech’. In a classroom, teacher perhaps the most significant environment who gave students much more input. There are some students also who could not optimize their attitudinal factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Therefore,“[t]hose who attitudes are not optimal for second language acquisition will not only seek less input, but they will also have a high strong Affective Filter – even if they understand the message, the input will not reach that part of the brain responsible for language acquisition, or the language devices. Those with attitudes more conducive to second language acquisition will not only seek obtain more input, they will also have a lower or weaker filter. They will be more open to the input, and it will strike ‘deeper’”.(Stevick, 1976) in Krashen (1995)<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">Those are some implications that the author could see in the process of second language acquisition in the classroom. Even though, there are many other theories in second language acquisition, which might be implementable in classroom process. Because there is no one perfect theory which can covered or explain the whole areas of second language acquisition field. As Larsen-Freeman (1997) suggests that SLA is, like some sciences, complex and non-linear. Just as multiplicity of factors make it difficult to predict weather accurately, so the various factors involved in SLA also make predictions about SLA difficult. Yet, like weather forecasters, we have to use the best knowledge we have at hand, as we seek to predict what the possible outcomes in a particular language learning context might be”.(Mangubhai, 2003, p. 4.1.)<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText">As a complementary the author will quote Krashen’s statement on his Introduction: The Relationship of Theory to Practice, which is very good for the progress of second language acquisition research.</p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><i style="">The solution to our problems in language teaching lies not in expensive equipment, exotic methods, sophisticated linguistic analyses, or new laboratories, but in full utilization of what we already have, speakers of the languages using them for the real communication. I will also conclude that the best method might also be the most pleasant, and that, strange as it seems, language acquisition occurs when language is used for what it was designed for, communication. (Krashen, 1995, p. 1.)</i></p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">References:</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Brown, R. (1973). A first language. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style=""> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">D’Anglejan, A. (1978). Language learning in and out of classroom. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dulay, H. and Burt, M. (1974). Natural sequences in child second language acquisition. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dulay, H. and Burt, M. (1975). A new approach to discovering universal strategies of child second language acquisition. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Krashen</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, S.D.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (1995). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: normal;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: normal;">Mangubhai, F. (2003). <i style="">Principles of Second Language Learning.</i> Study Book, Distance Education Centre, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: normal;">Schachter, J. (1998). Recent research in language learning studies: promises and problems. In Mangubhai, F. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles of Second Language Learning.</i> Study Book, Distance Education Centre, USQ, Toowoomba.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Stevick, E. (1976) Memory, meaning, and method. In Krahen, S.D. (Eds.). <i style="">Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition</i>. Prentice Hall Macmillan, New York.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The University of South Queensland (2003). <i style="">Principles of Second Language Learning</i>. Selected Readings, Distance Education Centre, USQ, Toowoomba.</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: normal;"> </p>Irulhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14766984531916867287noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1959192401588001588.post-80241849698694414132010-12-23T06:03:00.000-08:002010-12-23T06:05:59.258-08:00BILINGUALISM AND BILINGUAL EDUCATION<!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapedefaults ext="edit" spidmax="1027"> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapelayout ext="edit"> <o:idmap ext="edit" data="1"> </o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b style="">BILINGUALISM AND BILINGUAL EDUCATION</b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">ASSIGNMENT 1</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">How can we measure bilingualism? Describe some of ways bilingualism has been measured and discuss the problems associated with them.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="position: relative; z-index: 1; left: -1px; top: 0px; width: 554px; height: 2px;"><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/WINXP%7E1.KHO/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="554" height="2" /></span> </p> <br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Bilinguality and bilingualism are two similar concept of mastering language. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Although many authors believed that there were some differences between these two terms. As it is stated in Study Book (2004, p. 1.2) that the term of bilinguality most often refers to linguistic abilities of individual. While bilingualism is a wider concept, it is more social aspects of bilinguality, such as bilingualism in various communities, societies, etc., the socio-political context of being bilingual.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Bilinguality and bilingualism were not enough known as concept only, but it must be see as a complex thing which can be studied through research, in other word it is applicable thing. In doing research, there must be valid measurement which can be shown in the logic and real fact. As it is mentioned ‘(m)easurement is an inextricable aspect of language investigation’ (Study Book, 2004, p. 1.2). In the field of second language learner, measurement is very important in order to test the learners’ level proficiency or achievement. Therefore, we will see how can we measure bilingualism and see what happened in the bilingualism measures.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The linguists believed that measurement of bilingualism is a very complex phenomenon. There are many aspects that must be concerned about. Study Book (2004, p. 1.8) stated that bilingualism has many aspects that researchers can investigate and it is very important to define the scope of investigation. Furthermore, it says ‘In any measurement or testing situation we need to answer three fundamental questions’ (Study Book, 2004, p. 1.8). They are the ‘Why?’, the ‘What’, and the ‘How’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The ‘Why?’</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">It is very important, in measuring bilingualism, to decide the clear purpose of our investigation. Otherwise, we will fail to measure what we want to. Study Book (2004, p. 1.8) mentioned some question as follow:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">‘Are we trying to find out how proficient and individual is in two different languages at a given time or perhaps we are rather interested in how the proficiency in the two languages is changing over a period of time? Are we trying to measure the degree of the use of the languages in different domain? Are we trying to measure the speaker’s attitude toward using the two languages? Or are we most interested in whether the individual has equal competence in the two (or more) languages? Are we more interested in the society as a whole than in individual?’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition to this, Baker (2001, p. 18) says ‘Measurements of bilinguals can take place for variety of purpose, and it is valuable to differentiate between some of these overlapping aims’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Distribution</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The kind of measurement is found in census questions. The aim is to know the distribution and size of bilinguals in particular area. The result will show the proportion and the location where the particular language used mostly or rarely.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Selection</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The aim of this measurement is to grouping people in a separate group based on their level of proficiency. For example; students at school will be divided in the group of levels novice, elementary, advance, etc.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Summative</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The aim is ‘…to indicate the destination a person has reached in their language learning journey’ (Baker, 2001, p. 19). It usually occurs at the end of class program or semester. The test will cover some aspects of language proficiency which consist of reading, listening, grammar, etc.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Formative</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">This type of measurement is usually to measure a particular proficiency of language learner. If the test shown low competency so the learner need to be given a remedial. ‘If the test reveals areas where a child’s language needs developing, there can be immediate intervention and remedial help’ (Baker, 2001, p. 20). </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The ‘What?’</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">‘What’, it is something what we are going to measure or the object of our investigation. Study Book (2004, p. 1.9) stated:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">‘Since our focus of investigation is bilingualism, rather than just a second language, we need to define what we mean by bilingualism. If we agree that bilingualism is a scope of investigation rather than a phenomenon per is, we can paraphrase our question as ‘What is our scope of investigation?’ Are we interested in all individuals who have some command of two or more languages in any macro-skill, or are we just focusing people who have reached native-like proficiency in both or all?’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">The ‘How?’</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">This is the fundamental question in the measurement of bilingualism. It concerns about the process or the action of ‘How to measure what we are trying to measure?’ (Study Book, 2004, p. 1.9). The ‘How?’ will be answered after the ‘Why?’ and the ‘What?’ questions have been answered. Therefore, it is important to consider the concept of three simple heading: The ‘Why?’, the ‘What?’, and the ‘How?’ before we define kinds of bilingualism measurements. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In the next section we will discuss about many kinds of the measurements of bilinguality. Hamers & Blanc (2000, p. 34) stated their notion about measurement of bilinguality. There are seven kinds of the measures of bilinguality:</p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">comparative measures;</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">measures of bilingual competence;</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">measures of compound-coordinate bilinguality;</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">language biographies, self-evaluation and judgments of bilingual production;</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">measures of bilingual specifity;</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">measures of cognitive correlates of bilinguality and</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">measures of affective correlates of bilinguality.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Comparative measures</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">It is the most frequently used technique for measuring the various dimensions of bilinguality, that is, by comparing two language competences. ‘However, a direct comparison between measures in two languages is extremely difficult even when it is possible’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p. 34). It is difficult to compare various competences of two different languages in the same standardized measurement. It is possible, for example, to test the bilingual students by comparing their vocabularies competence. We will know whether the vocabularies competence of the students were balance or not from the comparison of words produced. ‘This comparative approach is the only valid one when bilinguality is measured on the ‘additive-subtractive dimension’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p. 35). It means that the cognitive advantages or disadvantages of additive and subtractive bilinguality are measured in respect of monolingual populations.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Measures of bilingual competence</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">There are some test researches on it such as:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Test of competence in the mother tongue. Hamers & Blanc (2000, p.35) mentioned some examples such as the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn, 1959) measuring receptive vocabulary, Reynell’s syntactic complexity test (Reynell, 1969) and the numerous language test included in traditional test batteries. According to Hamers & Blanc (2000, p.35) said that these test only measure one aspect of language competence in the mother tongue and it is far from evident that the particular aspect measured is the most relevant dimension. Most of these tests were made only to measure the linguistic competence not for the communicative competence.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Test of competence in a second language. ‘These tests are designed to measure the level of competence in second language reached by non-native speakers at that language’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.36). The test is usually designed for certain purpose such as in Indonesia, the students of senior high must fulfill the standardized grade of English in the final examination to enter the university. Therefore, the test would not be able to measure the whole competence of second language skills. And sometimes, it did not show the real competence of the students because of some factors such as reliability, validity, luckiness, etc. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Behavioral measures. ‘The difficulty of measuring bilingual competence by means of traditional languages tests has led experimental psychologists to design measures which allow a direct comparison between the two languages’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.36). There are some kinds of behavioral measures:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Reaction or latency-time measures. It is used to measure the verbal fluency in both languages.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Completion and word-detection tests. The test is designed to measure the number of words produced in two different languages. For example Indonesian – English, the students were asked to produce as many as words by recognizing a picture in both languages.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Verbal association test. The test is to measure balance or dominance. As an example Indonesian – English, the students were asked to produce words as much as possible. ‘This technique is based on the assumption that the more a learner becomes competence in L2, the more likely he is to give a high number of associations to L2 words and the more closely these associations will resemble those of the native like speakers of L2’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.38).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Interlingual verbal flexibility. It is to measure the bilingual ability to manipulate the two languages simultaneously, for example the ability of switching translation in both languages.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Use of interlingual ambiguity.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style=""> </i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Measures of Compound-Coordinate Bilinguality</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">This is semantic based measures which ‘…the distinction between the compound and coordinate bilingual in one of semantic representation; it implies that for the coordinate bilingual there is a greater semantic independence between the two linguistic codes, while for the compound there is greater semantic interdependence between two codes’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.39). Furthermore they give examples of some techniques which differentiate between compounds and coordinates, such as:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Semantic satiation and semantic generalization Berserker Burr-t <span style=""> </span>(Lambert, 1961, 1967; Lambert & Segalowitz, 1969);</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Semantic distance (Lambert, Havelka & Crosby, 1958);</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Core-concepts techniques (Lambert & Rawlings, 1969; Arkwright & Vian, 1974);</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Word-association technique (Lambert & Moore, 1966).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Language biographies, self-evaluation and judgments of bilingual production</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Language biographies are usually occurred to the person who use or acquire two languages in his/her daily life formally and informally.<span style=""> </span>For example a person who use two languages at home and at work or education. They use both languages in balance. ‘Language biographies provide information on the age and context of acquisition of both languages, their past and present use, their number, the variation spoken, the degree of literacy, etc.’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.40).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">In order to measure the language competence, ‘we should therefore be used in combination with other means’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.40). In this case, the measures frequently used to evaluate bilingual competence are self-evaluation and evaluation scale. The evaluations were done by the native speakers which can be used as a reliable means of balanced bilinguality. According to Hamers & Blanc (2000, p.40) who said that it will be more difficult to use in order to evaluate the proficiency of dominant bilingual since it seems less reliable for judging proficiency in a language spoken in a non-native way.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Measures of bilingual specificity</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">This measure is dealing with ‘the bilingual’s behaviour is viewed as the sum of two monolingual behaviours’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.41). It is occurred, for example, when bilinguals communicate each other by using simultaneous use of the resources of each of their languages. While they were speaking in one language they could borrow word from other languages. There are some researches have been done on these specific codes, for example: </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Lavandera (1978) who has drawn attention to the inadequacy of monolingual measures to try to evaluate speech production in bilingual communication situation.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Poplack’s (1980) who attempt to correlate the degree of balance of bilinguals with high level of competence in rule-governed code-switching. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Grosjean (1985) who believed that a bilingual also develops patterns of behaviour that are unique to his state of bilinguality.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Measures of cognitive correlates of bilinguality</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">These measures are based on the existence of a correlation between the development of bilinguality and cognition. The result of these studies showed us that there are cognitive advantages and cognitive disadvantages. As<span style=""> </span>Hamers & Blanc (2000, p.42) who stated that cognitive development is assumed to be affected by bilingual experience, an experimental design is used to which the result of verbal and non-verbal intelligence test, verbal creativity, verbal flexibility, divergent thinking, verbal transformations, symbol substitutions, etc are compared. They refer to the study of the classic study by Peal & Lambert (1962) as an example of an experimental design using large array of measures in order to asses cognitive differences between bilinguals and monolinguals.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Measures of affective correlates of bilinguality</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">These measures believe that there is always a cognitive and an affective aspect of development. According to Hamers & Blanc (2000, p.42) say ‘The affective component of bilingual development has to do with the relationships between the bilingual individual and his two languages. Since language is a social phenomenon, all affective reaction towards it is not limited to the language but applies also to the individuals and groups who speak that language’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">All of the measures discussed above were not applicable enough to measure bilinguality in some cases. There are some other measures which might be able to use in bilinguality. Hamers and Blanc (2000, p.43) mentioned those measures as follow:</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Measurement of bilinguality in cultural minority</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">These measures are dealing with situation language in contact, for example in education of cultural-minority children. The test were developed and administered in the majority language, which is usually their weaker language. Therefore, ‘psychometric tests of academic language proficiency are not appropriate for the assessment of minority children because these children have not reached the level of development required for these tests to be valid’ Cummins (1984a) cited in Hamers & Blanc (2000, p.43). Another case is occurred in the cultural differences between the different groups. For example, ,when we want to measure the vocabulary competence of the minority child, which is presented pictures or objects in the majority cultures. ’Although attempts have been made to construct culture-free measures applicable to all children, it has proved impossible to eliminate the cultural bias from test without impairing their validity as measures’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.44).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Measurement of societal bilingualism</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style=""><span style=""> </span></i>These measures are designed for the study of languages in contact at the societal level. ‘Researchers in this area normally make use of more general methodologies from social science, such as census technique, polls and surveys as well as applying the methods of sociolinguistics and of the ethnography of communication’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.45).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition, another notion about measurement of bilingualism was stated by Baker (2001). Baker gave some examples of the observations in order to make some essential points and tend to represent the styles most often used in researches as follow.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Language Background Scales</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">According to Baker (2001, p.20) who says ‘Language background or functional bilingualism scale are self-rating scales. They endeavor to measure actual use of two languages as opposed to proficiency’. In his observation, Baker (2001) found that the scale has limitations beside the problems of ambiguity and social desirability.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Language Censuses</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">These measures are usually done by the government ‘…as providing relatively accurate measures of the number of language speakers in local communities, regions and countries’ (Baker, 2001, p.24). There are some examples of censuses given here such as The United States Census of 1910, The United States Census of 2000, The 1992 Census of Venezuela, etc. In his analysis, Baker (2001, p.26) concluded that the census questions did not always give accurate and comprehensive information about use of languages, and also revealed implicit official attitudes towards the use and maintenance of minority languages.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Self-rating on proficiency</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">These measures give opportunity for the students ‘…to asses their language strengths and weaknesses’ (Baker, 2001, p.26) He gave example of survey by the Linguistic Minorities Project (1985:349) in London. They were asked to rate themselves on four language basic skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Language Balance and Dominance Measures</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Baker (2001, p.30) says ‘Various tests have been devised to gauge the relative dominance or balance of a bilingual’s two languages’. It is commonly done in the US particularly for language minority children. Baker (2001, p.31) says ‘…a major problem in these measures is the presentativeness of measure of language proficiency and performance’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Communicative Language Testing</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">These measures concern to the use of two languages in a range of real communicative situations. Such a test has been done by the US Foreign Service in oral interview. According to Baker (2001, p.33) who says ‘There are doubts about whether such interview procedures can validity imitate and investigate real communicative competence. At the same time, they are a compromise between artificial pencil and paper tests and the impracticality of the detailed observation pf individuals’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style="">Criterion Referenced Language Tests: A Curriculum Approach to Language Testing</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">‘Language proficiency tests use usually classified into Norm Referenced and Criterion Referenced Tests; the former usually being <i style="">summative test</i>, the latter mostly being <i style="">formative test’ </i>(Baker, 2001, p.33). These measures are usually done at school.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Having discussion above I agree that bilingualism is complex and it is global phenomenon, as Hamers and Blanc (2000, p.49) say ‘…which involves simultaneously a psychological state of the individual and a situation of languages in contact at the interpersonal and the collective level’. There are no absolute measures that we can use in measuring one’s bilinguality. Therefore, it is importance to use the variety of measures in order to capture a state of bilinguality. We can use any measures based on the purpose we intend to. As Hamers and Blanc (2000, p.49) say ‘Even if some of the measures are still crude, it is preferable to use them rather than to reject quantification altogether’.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><i style=""> </i></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Reference:</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Baker, C. 2001, <i style="">Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, </i>3<sup>rd</sup> edn<i style="">. </i>Multilingual Matters Ltd, Clevedon, England.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Hamers, J.F. & Blanc, M.H.A. 2000, <i style="">Bilinguality and Bilingualism, </i>2<sup>nd</sup> edn<i style="">.</i> Cambridge University Press, New York, USA.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">The University of Southern Queensland, 2004. <i style="">Bilingualism and bilingual education, </i>Selected Reading<i style="">. </i>USQ, Toowoomba, Australia.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">The University of Southern Queensland, 2004. <i style="">Bilingualism and bilingual education, </i>Study Book<i style="">. </i>USQ, Toowoomba, Australia.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">JOURNAL 1</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Most of people are able to speak and understand more than one language. It usually exists on the country which has many tribes, because they usually have mother tongue and national language as communication. For example Indonesia, which has many tribes with the different local languages. However, Indonesian people use Bahasa Indonesia as National language. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">As in my region, the place I live, the citizen consists of two major tribes; Javanese, and Bugisnese. I can say that they are bilingual because they speak two languages as communication. There are similarities between these two tribes in using their L1 and L2. When they are in the community of the same tribes, they will communicate with their L1(informal situation). But they will use Indonesian Language in the formal situation such as business, office, and education.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">However, it is quite often occurred errors slip of borrowing words from L1 to L2, or L2 to L1. People usually could not say particular word in L2, and then they switch into L1 words. Another example, I have student who get difficulty in mentioning number in Indonesian Language even in the classroom. He will think in L1 for a while to say number in Indonesian Language as L2.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition, most of Indonesian children will acquire two languages in the same time, because of the need. Their parents and their environments use the mother tongue as communication at home but the teachers and students use Indonesian Language as communication at school. ‘…a person who acquired two languages in the home from infancy has received his education in both his languages and uses them regularly at home and at work has most probably developed a balanced and compound bilinguality’ (Hamers & Blanc, 2000, p.40). However, there are also few students who only acquire one single language (Bahasa Indonesia) as their L1. They usually come from a family with different tribe and culture. For example the mother is Javenese and the father is Bugisnese, they use Bahasa Indonesia as their daily communication at home so that the input for the children is only one language. Therefore, the children become monolingual.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: left; line-height: 150%;" align="left"><span style="line-height: 150%;">ASSIGNMENT 2</span></p> <p class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: left;" align="left"><span style="">Propose a plan for introducing a type of bilingual education program during primary or secondary education in a context that you are familiar with (e.g. if you are teaching in Japan, you may consider writing about introducing an English-Japanese bilingual program), if you are in Australia you may consider an Indigenous-English bilingual-bicultural program. Discuss why you would suggest introducing that type of program and why you think the chosen structure (early or late/partial or total immersion, etc.) was chosen. </span></p> <p class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: left;" align="left"><span style="">-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></p> <p class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">INTRODUCING AN ENGLISH – INDONESIAN BILINGUAL PROGRAM FOR VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">BACKGROUND</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Indonesian high school is divided into two groups; those are general high school and vocational high school. The general high school prepares the students for continuing study to the university, while the vocational high school prepares the students for entering job field which need semi professional workers. The percentage is 70% for general high school and 30% for vocational high school of the total number of high school all over Indonesia in the past. However, it has been changed up side down nowadays become 70% for vocational school and 30% for general high school because of the demand of job field to employ the ready-use workers. The output of the vocational school, hopely, will be able to fulfill the employees demand or even open new job field based on the skill background they have.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">There many kinds of vocational school which divided into groups of business management group, information and technology group, and tourism and arts group. In this case I will focus on the school I have been teaching at, that is business management group. There are three main departments at this school; accounting, secretary, sales department. There are some subjects which are the same as the compulsory subjects such as history, computer, English, Math, etc. On the other hand, there are some specific subjects based on its department. As I mentioned that the government policy on the high school has been changing nowadays, we will see slightly what happened to the Indonesian education right now. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">In general, <i style="">education</i> is one of the biggest issues of Indonesian development program right now. The government has allocated wide range of money to develop education in particular vocational education. As a result, many new schools were built and many new teachers were employed. <span style=""> </span>As one of the biggest population countries in the world, the biggest number of population is children within school ages between 6 to 17 years old. Therefore, the Indonesian government put education on the top of Indonesian development issues.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">One of the most significant policies in education was taken by the central government. That is, teaching other languages (the most popular languages used in the international relationship) in formal education. English is the most popular languages being taught in Indonesian schools. Some other schools taught German, French, Mandarin, Arabic and Japanese as the optional languages. English has been taught from secondary level to the tertiary level. However, a long with the globalization era, the education department initiated to introduce English since elementary school (grade 3). Even though, it was not all of the schools could implement this policy, because not all of the schools have teacher with English background. At the same time, some of the kinder-garten or pre-schools introduced English as the additional subject in the curriculum. It is usually run by the private schools. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition, the Indonesian education department took program classifying school into national, international, and ISO 2000 standardized. For the international standard, the school must fulfill certain circumstances. Such as the school must teach some subjects in English. These programs were run in order to up grade the quality of the Indonesian education in general.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Moreover, Indonesian government has taken another significant policy in the last five years. That is called “Otonomi Daerah” or regional autonomy, where every region or district can undertake its own policies, in some certain areas, to develop its region. In this case the local government has authority to make some policies for regional development. For example in education, although the central government still take control in the whole education policies but in some particular cases, the local government could take its own decision and develop its own program. Such as, in developing curriculums, building new schools and employing new teachers. This is really a good chance for the local government, education department in particular to develop education program in order to have better output of school and better local human recourses. In this case, I will introduce an English - Indonesian bilingual education program, which is, called “immersion program”.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">WHAT IS IMMERSION PROGRAM?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Immersion based on bilingualism means the students study regular subjects in second language. They can use the language orally and writtenly in daily life. According to Berthold (1995, p.1) cites Genesee (1987:1) who says;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">‘Immersion is the form of bilingual education in which students who speak the language of the majority of the population receive part of their instruction through the medium of a second language and part through their first language.’</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition, Berthold (2003, p. 1.2 ) conclude that, immersion is teaching of a range of subjects (such as Mathematics, Science, and History) through second language to the students who do not initially speak this second language. This is done for at least 50% of the school day, and where the ultimate goal is to produce bilingual students. It is very important to understand what immersion is, so that everyone who is involved in the program has the same understanding and direction to reach the goal.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">There are some considerations we should concern before deciding what language we will use for the instruction of immersion program. In the case of bilingual education in Indonesia, I will recommend ‘English’ as language instruction for some reasons;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>English is an international language which most of people use in the international communication.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Indonesia need much more people who can speak English for international purpose.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Indonesia is located in between the biggest continents, the biggest oceans and some big countries. As a result Indonesia will be the traffic center of international trade.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Most of knowledge or science and technology development is written in English.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>The alphabet between Indonesian and English are similar so that the student will not have much problem in the beginning of the program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>For the region will get benefits because they will have human recourses with English qualified ability. It means that they will have access for the international relationship.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Based on those reasons above we can conclude that bilingual in Indonesia is additive bilingualism. Meaning that by learning the second language people will get many advantages, without any threatened for the first language existence. Berthold (2003, p. 2.2) says ‘This applies to a speaker whose first language (L1) is dominant and prestigious and is in no way threatened by the acquisition of a second language (L2). The second language is seen as a positive addition of another socially relevant language to a well establisher first language, which will continue to maintain its position of importance, if not dominant’. For example when Japanese who acquires English or Indonesian who acquire English. English will not damage Indonesian language. Moreover, it will enrich Indonesian language vocabularies. As a matter of fact that there are many Indonesian words which came from other languages, such as Arabic, English, and Sanskrit. In other words, learning English as a second language will have positive impacts for Indonesian. Not only linguistic impacts, but also social and culture impacts, and even economic impacts. Indonesian will get many advantages of running this program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">GOAL OF THE PROGRAM</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Every program must have certain goal to reach, as well as in immersion program. The goal can be initiated from anybody or whoever. But the whole elements who will be involved in the program must understand and responsible to succeed the program. At least we can answer some questions deal with immersion, as Berthold (2003, p. 3.13) said that there are some questions that have to be concerned before running the program;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>What effects will there be on the students’ first language?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>How proficient will students be in the second language?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>What happen to their acquisition of skills and content knowledge of subjects taught through the second language?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>At what age should the child become “immersed”?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">These all questions should be answered before the problem arise in the middle of the program. Because immersion is comprehension program, it involves many elements in the program. Every element can sit together and formulate the goals. The goals may be vary based on the need and significance of bilingualism in Indonesia. We can formulate the goals as below;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Give the students chance and maximize their academic ability to study subjects in second language (English).</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Prepare the students for their future study that will deal with English.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Prepare the students to be able to communicate by using international language, especially when they want to have international relationship.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style=""> </span>Prepare the next generations who have ability to adapt knowledge and technology written in English.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>The other goal can be formulated based on the regional need.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">TYPE OF PROGRAM</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">There are three types of immersion programs, which have been done by some countries in the world, such as Canada, Australia,USA, etc. Those are;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Early immersion, this type of immersion program starts from kindergarten or elementary school grade 1 to grade 11. The most popular example of this type of immersion program has been done by Canada, and sponsored by Swain & friends from the Ontario Institute for Study in Education (OISE). They have been doing research on early immersion for many years to see the effectiveness of the program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Middle immersion, this program is also called delayed immersion. This program is started at year 8 or grade 3 of elementary school. Swain and friends also have done research.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Late immersion, this program is started from secondary school grade 1 to 3 (Indonesian Secondary Schools). Canada is the most popular country in immersion program. Late immersion, for example, researches have been done by Genesee in Montreal. He found that a very significant evident on his research. It shown the achievement of late immersion compare to early immersion was slightly different. The common percentage language used in these three types of immersion is 100% and 50% or in other word people called total immersion and partial immersion.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Each of immersion programs has its advantages and disadvantages. However, based on the regional potential and local government capability to support this program, I will recommend <i style="">‘partial late immersion’</i> as the choice because; it will deal with many factors, such as teachers availability, students and parents response, and financial support. Berthold (1995, p.257 ) identified the advantages of late immersion; ‘Students more cognitively developed, and hence learn more quickly. Students are volunteers, self-motivated rather than parentally motivated and easier to develop a continuity program’. The other advantages based on Indonesian bilingual education; English has been studied since grade 3 of elementary school, so the students will not have many difficulties in the beginning of the program. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition to this, ‘Why should we choose late immersion?’, if I, as a parent, <span style="" lang="EN-AU">have to choose, I will enrol my children in the late immersion program because of some reasons. Here there are some factors that we should consider. Those are consideration relating to cognitive factors, consideration relating to linguistic factor, and consideration relating to the time (length of the program), educators, and financial factors. Basically cognitive factor relates to how mental process such as thinking, logic, problem solving ability, knowledge, reasoning, conceptualization develop within an individual. For example, if we look at the cognitive development of students in the classroom, they become more confidence in delivering arguments, critics, logical thinking when they are in puberty. As well as in understanding the lesson, they can use their abstraction and understand the lesson easily.</span></p> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="" lang="EN-AU"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU">According to Piaget cited in Brown ( 2000, p. 61) said that a critical stage for consideration of the effects of age on second language acquisition appears to occur at puberty. It is here that a person becomes capable of abstraction of formal thinking, which transcends concrete experience and direct perception and learners at puberty begin to analyse the second language more conscious. Therefore with those students ability late immersion is the right choice. They will get many advantages on the program and it will be easier to reach the goal of the program.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU"> </span></p> <h3 style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-AU">One of the main questions that might be asked by the parents is what about the effects of teaching children other languages to their first language if their first language skills have not developed well yet. This question is quite reasonable because as the parents, they want to keep and maintain their language and culture without any influences of other languages role.</span></h3> <h3 style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-AU"> </span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The effects of second language to the first language development might be occurred if the first language proficiencies were not strong enough developed to the children. However, if we look at the results of the research in general is that immersion students are most likely to perform as well as not immersion students on the test of comprehension, including both reading and listening. For example, the comparisons have been made by Geneese for one-year late immersion program in Montreal (Geneese, Morin & Allister, 1979). It was found that the students in the immersion centers had achieved higher levels of proficiency than students in duel-track schools, Geneese’s evaluation also included tests of listening comprehension, speaking, reading and language arts.</span></p> <h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">Furthermore, the educators, financials and times are three important factors that should be considered about. T</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;" lang="EN-AU">hey stick together become the main considerations in immersion program. In a very simple explanation, why these three aspects should be considered in the late immersion, we can look at the following</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;" lang="EN-AU"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;" lang="EN-AU">questions;</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;"></span></h2> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU">Who will teach the students, and what kinds of teacher or staff qualification are needed to support this program?</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU">Who will fund this program, and how much money will spend for it?</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU">How long it will go on?</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU">If we can answer and understand these questions clearly, then, we will consider that late immersion is the best choice. </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">So, we can afford the goal with minimum local government financial support capability in particular and small number of teachers. Because, it does not need long time to run the program.</span><span style=""> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-AU"></span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>WHO WILL RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROGRAM?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Here is one of the most important steps of immersion program. Because, if it is unclear who will responsible for the program, it is impossible the program will run well. Perhaps people will see that teacher is the most responsible element in the program. However, if we learn from the history of immersion program from some countries, we will see that teacher is not only the one who responsible for the successful of the program. Besides the teachers or educators, parents and government (education department) have the same role and responsibility to support the program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Parents, for example, will participate on supporting the program by convincing the children to join and study hard in the program. In some cases, parents could be the initiator of the program and convinced the teachers or even the government to run the program. As Berthold (1995, p. 266 ) says, ‘[t]he role of parents is also critical. Without support of parents there will be no children within the program’. However, parents support is not enough yet. The qualified and the solid educators and administration staff must support it.<span style=""> </span>As well as strong willingness and support from the government (education department) to succeed the program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition of late immersion, there is possibility for the parents to support the financial need, although the local government had allocated certain amount of fund in education program. However, because this program is out of the regular programs, so it needs more financial support. At the same time, government has to fund many other schools spread out the country.<span style=""> </span>As (Berthold, 1995, p. 258 ) says ‘ …the choice of program style will have to be made by the educational, school and general communities working together’. Therefore, those three elements must work together to support the program, otherwise, it will collapse in the middle of the way.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">TEACHERS OR EDUCATORS AVAILABILITY</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Teacher availability is an urgent issue in Indonesian education. The number of the schools or students is unbalance to the teachers availability. However, as the first program, it does not need too many teachers employed. The government could employ the teachers available at the moment to be the immersion teacher. So far, there are some teachers from my district who have been studying in Australia. They have been introduced to the immersion program at The University of Southern Queensland. At least they have knowledge and know how to run immersion program. The program will be partial late immersion, so that, few teachers are enough to run the immersion program for the beginning. What subject they will teach is based on their skills background as follows.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">CONTENTS AREA</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Basically there are similarities in the case of subject taught in Indonesian schools with modern country schools. There are Mathematics, Science, Geography, Physical Education, Arts & Music, and some other local contents. It is important to consider the most possible subjects to be taught in second language. The subjects could be understood comprehensively by the students. Berthold (1995, p. 262) says; ‘A role of thumb is that those themes or subjects which;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Contain the least amount of language and</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Are easiest to demonstrate physically, graphically or symbolically are the areas one would find easiest to begin with’. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Based on the explanation above there are some subjects that we can teach in second language, particularly at vocational school, such as Mathematics, History, Music & Arts, Physical Education, English, and two local contents; Computer class and Home Industry class. Because my school based on the business management group, so I will suggest teaching Math, History, and Computer in English in the beginning of the program besides English subject itself. On the other words, we can choose the main subjects based on the departments of the school, for example accounting, secretary, and sales department. The question arises then, how can we get the teaching materials?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">It always becomes a big question when the program will be started. We can learn from the experience of immersion from other countries ever, how they can get the teaching resources. Most of the teaching materials were created by the teachers in the beginning. They translated the subjects into the instructional language, and then they gave the copy to the students. Another way is by finding out the authentic material from the English speaking countries.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">It is quite possible for Indonesian teachers to get the authentic material from Australian teachers, because they have had good relationship for long time ago. For example students and teachers exchange program. Some local governments have been engaging relationship with some states in Australia for long time. Such as, Central Java local government with Queensland Education Department and some other big cities in Australia. For teachers from Kalimantan, they have connection and good relationship with some LOTE teachers from Queensland (Toowoomba). In the future this relationship can be extended, such as transferring teaching resources among the LOTE teachers from both countries or students and teachers exchange program. And also we can learn from other local governments who have had relationship with Australian teachers. Or we can search on the internet because it is quite easy to get online materials nowadays. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">STUDENTS SELECTION</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">For the first time, it will be a big issue because people did not know about immersion. The program must be introduced to the public first, parents and students in particular. Considering the large number of the students at school with limited teachers, it is impossible to have many classes of immersion program. One class is enough for the first time program. The program can be introduced to the parents and students, and they could join in the program with its all risk and responsibilities. Another way that can be done by the school is, for example, the school makes some criteria which student can be received in the program. There is a model class in Indonesian schools, which contain students with high motivation, and high ability. This class model can be included in the immersion program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">SUCCESSFULNES IMPLICATIONS</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Once the program was run, many possibilities could be happened. Many unpredictable problems are possibly to happen. There is always failure possibility, but we can learn from the successful program of other countries in the world such as Canada, Australia, Brunei Darussalam, etc. The closest countries we can learn are Australia and Brunei Darussalam, Singapore. Australia is very popular in the world with Benowa late immersion and Brunei Darussalam with its bilingual education program (EFL).</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">It is very important for the teachers and education department to have such a study tour or study comparison to Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, etc. which have been succeeded on the immersion program. They can learn and observe the immersion program in those countries, so that they have good description about immersion program and know how to run immersion program. In the future, teachers training or sending them to study in English speaking countries are very important. Because of we will need much more teachers for the continuing the program in particular when we want to extend the program. The teacher must not always an English teacher, but also they can be other specialist teachers who have English background or bilingual teachers. The most important thing is they have high motivation, integrity, and loyalty to succeed the program. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Finally, when we want to initiate the bilingual education program, we have to consider many things such as, the goals, the advantages and disadvantages, the financial support, etc. As well as some elements that should work together, such as teachers, parents, and government.<span style=""> </span>Otherwise, the program will be failed and stop on the way of the process. As Berthold (1995, p. 259) says; </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><i style="">‘No one element in the choice of immersion program stands alone. They are all inextricably linked and intertwined with one another. Whatever is decided, there must be long-term planning and resourcing designated to ensure success. Why start what will not be finished?’ .</i></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Reference:</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Baker, C., 2001. <i style="">Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism</i>. 3<sup>rd</sup> edition. Multilingual Matters LTD, Clevedon.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Berthold, M. J., 1993. The staircase model: Language awareness to content teaching. In <i style="">Proceeding of the First Biennial Conference (pp. 38-46). </i>Newcastle: Australian Association of Language Immersion Teachers.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Berthold, M.,1995. Initiating an immersion program. In Berthold, M. (Ed<i style="">.). Rising to the Bilingual Challenge</i> (pp. 252- 274). Canberra: NLLIA.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Berthold, M.,2003. Study Book. <i style="">Immersion Language Teaching</i>. The University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Brown, H.D. 2000. <i style="">Principles of Language Learning and Teaching</i>, 4<sup>th</sup> edition, Longman,San Francisco State University.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Jones, G. 1992. The expectations and limitations of bilingual education in Negara Brunei Darussalam. In <i style="">Conference Proceedings of the Ninth National Languages Conference (pp. 162-1720. </i>Darwin: Australian Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">JOURNAL 2</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Many researches on bilingualism have been done in the past forty years. Most of them showed that there are many advantages of bilingualism. Such as cognitive development, linguistics skills, etc. Along with the development of technology and the awareness of parents of; how the education quality is very important for their children. Nowadays, there is tendency of parents, in Indonesia, to enroll their children to join a foreign language course particularly English because of some reasons:</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">They want their children to be able to pass on the English final test. Because Indonesian government made policy on the national passing grade for English subject. And the students must fulfill the national standardized grade. If not, they could not continue their study to the next level.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">They seen that by learning English the children will get benefit for their future study, particularly in the globalization era where English become one of the most used language in international communication.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">They studied from the experience of the other parents that the students who join an English course have better communication way, more initiative, and better self-confidence.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Considering those facts above, I think, it is time for the schools to initiate and purpose the bilingual education. Of course, the program must involve many elements such as parents, teachers, and government particularly the education department. They could sit together and discuss how to run the program. The program must be arranged in very good planning, because there are many things which should be considered in initiating bilingual education program. Such as the human resources (educators and stuffing), financial support, and other supporting items such as location, building, material, etc. This program is such a long time program which need good planning, solid and integrated team who have to work hardly, because the results only can be seen after long period of time. Therefore, each element must be consistence during the process, because there must be many problems will arise on the way of the program.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In addition, another bilingual education which is popular in Indonesia nowadays is studying mandarin. It is usually run by the private institutions. Many parents were interested in this program because its specification. This program mostly teach math rather than other subjects, and the most popular one is teaching ‘sim phoa’, it is the traditional method of basic math in mandarin language. Another consideration is Chinese is one of the biggest foreign tribes in Indonesia. So, there are psychological and cultural considerations on it. At the same time, there are many parents in USA, nowadays, who enroll their children into the pre-school mandarin course. They think that China will be one of the biggest countries in the world, so study their language is important. </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">These facts lead me to the conclusion that the phenomenon of bilingualism is getting progress now. People start to think about the advantages of bilingual education, even though, there is always risk of it. However, from most of the researches showed that bilingual education have much more advantages than disadvantages.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p>Irulhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14766984531916867287noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1959192401588001588.post-8531516437000249382010-12-23T06:01:00.000-08:002010-12-23T06:03:32.148-08:00IMMERSION PROGRAMM<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: left; line-height: 150%;" align="left"><span style="line-height: 150%;">ASSIGNMENT 2</span></p> <p class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: left;" align="left"><span style="">Propose a plan for introducing a type of bilingual education program during primary or secondary education in a context that you are familiar with (e.g. if you are teaching in Japan, you may consider writing about introducing an English-Japanese bilingual program), if you are in Australia you may consider an Indigenous-English bilingual-bicultural program. Discuss why you would suggest introducing that type of program and why you think the chosen structure (early or late/partial or total immersion, etc.) was chosen. </span></p> <p class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: left;" align="left"><span style="">-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></p> <p class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">INTRODUCING AN ENGLISH – INDONESIAN BILINGUAL PROGRAM FOR VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">BACKGROUND</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Indonesian high school is divided into two groups; those are general high school and vocational high school. The general high school prepares the students for continuing study to the university, while the vocational high school prepares the students for entering job field which need semi professional workers. The percentage is 70% for general high school and 30% for vocational high school of the total number of high school all over Indonesia in the past. However, it changed up side down nowadays become 70% for vocational school and 30% for general high school because of the demand of job field to employ the ready-use workers. The output of the vocational school, hopely, will be able to survive with the skills they have based on each department.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">There many kinds of vocational school which divided into groups of business management, information and technology, and tourism and arts. In this case I will focus on the school I have been teaching at, that is business management group. There are three main departments at this school; accounting, secretary, sales department. As I mentioned that the government policy on the high school is changing now, we will see slightly what happened to the Indonesian education now. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">In general, <i style="">education</i> is one of the biggest issues of Indonesian development program right now. The government has allocated wide range of money to develop education in particular vocational education. As a result, many new schools were built and many new teachers were employed. <span style=""> </span>As one of the biggest population countries in the world, the biggest number of population is children within school ages between 6 to 17 years old. Therefore, the Indonesian government put education on the top of Indonesian development issues.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">One of the most significant policies in education was taken by the central government. That is, teaching other languages (the most popular languages used in the international relationship) in formal education. English is the most popular languages being taught in Indonesian schools. Some other schools taught German, French, Mandarin, Arabic and Japanese as the optional languages. English has been taught from secondary level to the tertiary level. However, a long with the globalization era, the education department initiated to introduce English since elementary school (grade 3). Even though, it was not all of the schools could implement this policy, because not all of the schools have teacher with English background. Some of the kinder garden or pre-schools introduced English as the additional subject in the curriculum. It is usually run by the private schools. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition, the Indonesian education department took program classifying school into national standardized, international standardized, ISO standardized. For the international standard, the school must fulfill certain circumstances. Such as the school must teach some subjects in English. These programs were run in order to up grade the quality of the Indonesian education in general.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Moreover, Indonesian government has taken another significant policy in the last five years. That is called “Otonomi Daerah” or regional autonomy, where every region or district can undertake its own policies, in some certain areas, to develop its region. In this case the local government has authority to make some policies for regional development. For example in education, although the central government still take control in the whole education policies but in some particular cases, the local government could take its own decision and develop its own program. Such as, in developing curriculums, building new schools and employing new teachers. This is really a good chance for the local government, education department in particular to develop education program in order to have better output of school and better local human recourses. In this case, I will introduce an English - Indonesian bilingual education program, which is, called “immersion program”.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">WHAT IS IMMERSION PROGRAM?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Immersion based on bilingualism means the students study regular subjects in second language. They can use the language orally and writtenly in daily life. According to Berthold (1995, p.1) cites Genesee (1987:1) who says;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">‘Immersion is the form of bilingual education in which students who speak the language of the majority of the population receive part of their instruction through the medium of a second language and part through their first language. Both the second language and the first language are used to teach regular school subject, such as Mathematics, Science, or Physical Education, in addition to language arts. The same subjects are never taught using both languages concurrently or during the same academic year. Different subjects are taught through the medium of each language. Generally speaking at least 50 per cent of instruction during a given academic year must be provided through the second language for the program to be regarded as immersion [my emphasis]. Program in which one subject and language arts are taught through the second language are generally identified as enriched second language program.’ </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Based on the definition above, then, Berthold (2003) conclude that, immersion is teaching of a range of subjects (such as Mathematics, Science, and History) through second language to the students who do not initially speak this second language. This is done for at least 50% of the school day, and where the ultimate goal is to produce bilingual students. It is very important to understand what immersion is, so that everyone who is involved in the program has the same understanding and direction to reach the goal.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">There are some considerations we should concern before deciding what language we will use for the instruction of immersion program. In the case of bilingual education in Indonesia, I will recommend ‘English’ as language instruction for some reasons;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>English is an international language which most of people use in the international communication.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Indonesia need much more people who can speak English for international purpose.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Indonesia is located in between the biggest continents, the biggest oceans and some big countries. As a result Indonesia will be the traffic center of international trade.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Most of knowledge or science and technology development is written in English.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>The alphabet between Indonesian and English are similar so that the student will not have much problem in the beginning of the program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>For the region will get benefits because they will have human recourses with English qualified ability. It means that they will have access for the international relationship.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Based on those reasons above we can conclude that bilingual in Indonesia is additive bilingualism. Meaning by learning the second language people will get many advantages, without any threatened for the first language existence. Berthold (2003, p. ) says ‘This applies to a speaker whose first language (L1) is dominant and prestigious and is in no way threatened by the acquisition of a second language (L2). The second language is seen as a positive addition of another socially relevant language to a well establisher first language, which will continue to maintain its position of importance, if not dominant’. For example when Japanese who acquires English or Indonesian who acquire English. English will not damage Indonesian language. Moreover, it will enrich Indonesian language vocabularies. As a matter of fact that there are many Indonesian words which came from other languages, such as Arabic, English, and Sanskrit. In other words, learning English as a second language will have positive impacts for Indonesian. Not only linguistic impacts, but also social and culture impacts, and even economic impacts. Indonesian will get many advantages of running this program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">GOAL OF THE PROGRAM</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Every program must have certain goal to reach, as well as in immersion program. The goal can be initiated from anybody or whoever. But the whole elements who will be involved in the program must understand and responsible to succeed the program. At least we can answer some questions deal with immersion, as Berthold (2003, p. ) said that there are some questions that have to be concerned before running the program;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>What effects will there be on the students’ first language?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>How proficient will students be in the second language?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>What happen to their acquisition of skills and content knowledge of subjects taught through the second language?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>At what age should the child become “immersed”?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">These all questions should be answered before the problem arise in the middle of the program. Because immersion is comprehension program, it involves many elements in the program. Every element can sit together and formulate the goals. The goals may be vary based on the need and significance of bilingualism in Indonesia. We can formulate the goals as below;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Give the students chance and maximize their academic ability to study subjects in second language (English).</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Prepare the students for their future study that will deal with English.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Prepare the students to be able to communicate by using international language, especially when they want to have international relationship.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style=""> </span>Prepare the next generations who have ability to adapt knowledge and technology written in English.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>The other goal can be formulated based on the regional need.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">TYPE OF PROGRAM</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">There are three types of immersion programs, which have been done by some countries in the world, such as Canada, Australia,USA, etc. Those are;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Early immersion, this type of immersion program starts from kindergarten or elementary school grade 1 to grade 11. The most popular example of this type of immersion program has been done by Canada, and sponsored by Swain & friends from the Ontario Institute for Study in Education (OISE). They have been doing research on early immersion for many years to see the effectiveness of the program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Middle immersion, this program is also called delayed immersion. This program is started at year 8 or grade 3 of elementary school. Swain and friends also have done research.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Late immersion, this program is started from secondary school grade 1 to 3 (Indonesian Secondary Schools). Canada is the most popular country in immersion program. Late immersion, for example, researches have been done by Genesee in Montreal. He found that a very significant evident on his research. It shown the achievement of late immersion compare to early immersion was slightly different. The common percentage language used in these three types of immersion is 100% and 50% or in other word people called total immersion and partial immersion.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Each of immersion programs has its advantages and disadvantages. However, based on the regional potential and local government capability to support this program, I will recommend <i style="">‘partial late immersion’</i> as the choice because; it will deal with many factors, such as teachers availability, students and parents response, and financial support. Berthold (1995, p. ) identified the advantages of late immersion; ‘Students more cognitively developed, and hence learn more quickly. Students are volunteers, self-motivated rather than parentally motivated and easier to develop a continuity program’. The other advantages based on Indonesian bilingual education; English has been studied since grade 3 of elementary school, so the students will not have many difficulties in the beginning of the program. In addition of late immersion, we can afford the goal with minimum local government financial support capability in particular and small number of teachers. Because, it does not need long time to run the program.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>WHO WILL RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROGRAM?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Here is one of the most important steps of immersion program. Because, if it is unclear who will responsible for the program, it is impossible the program will run well. Perhaps people will see that teacher is the most responsible element in the program. However, if we learn from the history of immersion program from some countries, we will see that teacher is not only the one who responsible for the successful of the program. Besides the teachers or educators, parents and government (education department) have the same role and responsibility to support the program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Parents, for example, will participate on supporting the program by convincing the children to join and study hard in the program. In some cases, parents could be the initiator of the program and convinced the teachers or even the government to run the program. As Berthold (2003, p. ) says, ‘[t]he role of parents is also critical. Without support of parents there will be no children within the program’. However, parents support is not enough yet. The solid educators and administration staff must support it.<span style=""> </span>As well as strong willingness and support from the government (education department) to succeed the program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">In addition of late immersion, there is possibility for the parents to support the financial need, although the local government had allocated certain amount of fund in education program. However, because this program is out of the regular programs, so it needs more financial support. At the same time, government has to fund many other schools spread out the country.<span style=""> </span>Therefore, (Berthold, 1995, p. ) says ‘ …the choice of program style will have to be made by the educational, school and general communities working together’. Those three elements must work together to support the program, otherwise, it will collapse in the middle of the way.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">TEACHERS AVAILABILITY</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Teacher availability is an urgent issue in Indonesian education. The number of the schools or students is unbalance to the teachers availability. However, as the first program, it does not need too many teachers employed. The government could employ the teachers available at the moment to be the immersion teacher. So far, there are some teachers from my district who have been studying in Australia. They have been introduced to the immersion program at The University of Southern Queensland. At least they have knowledge and know how to run immersion program. The program will be partial late immersion, so that, few teachers are enough to run the immersion program for the beginning. What subject they will teach is based on their skills background. We will see the further explanation on the next session.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">CONTENTS AREA</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Basically there are similarities in the case of subject taught in Indonesian schools with modern country schools. There are Mathematics, Science, Geography, Physical Education, Arts & Music, and some other local contents. It is important to consider the most possible subjects to be taught in second language. The subjects could be understood comprehensively by the students. Berthold (1995, p. ) says; ‘A role of thumb is that those themes or subjects which;</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Contain the least amount of language and</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Are easiest to demonstrate physically, graphically or symbolically are the areas one would find easiest to begin with’. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Based on the explanation above there are some subjects that we can teach in second language, particularly at vocational school, such as Mathematics, History, Music & Arts, Geography, Physical Education, English, and two local contents; Computer class and Home Industry class. Because my school based on the business management group, so I will suggest teaching Math, History, and Computer in English in the beginning of the program besides English subject itself. On the words, we can choose the main subjects based on the departments of the school, for example accounting, secretary, and sales. The question arises then, how can we get the teaching materials?</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">It always becomes a big question when the program will be started. We can learn from the experience of immersion from other countries ever, how they can get the teaching resources. Most of the teaching materials were created by the teachers in the beginning. They translated the subjects into the instructional language, and then they gave the copy to the students. Another way is by finding out the authentic material from the English speaking countries.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">It is quite possible for Indonesian teachers to get the authentic material from Australian teachers, because they have had good relationship for long time ago. For example students and teachers exchange program. Some local governments have been engaging relationship with some states in Australia for long time. Such as, Central Java local government with Queensland Education Department and some other big cities in Australia. For teachers from Kalimantan, they have connection and good relationship with some LOTE teachers from Queensland (Toowoomba). In the future this relationship can be extended, such as transferring teaching resources among the LOTE teachers from both countries or students and teachers exchange program. And also we can learn from other local governments who have had relationship with Australian teachers. Or we can search on the internet because it is quite easy to get online materials nowadays. </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">STUDENTS SELECTION</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">For the first time, it will be a big issue because people did not know about immersion. The program must be introduced to the public first, parents and students in particular. Considering the large number of the students at school with limited teachers, it is impossible to have many classes of immersion program. One class is enough for the first time program. The program can be introduced to the parents and students, and they could join in the program with its all risk and responsibilities. Another way that can be done by the school is, for example, the school makes some criteria which student can be received in the program. There is a model class in Indonesian schools, which contain students with high motivation, and high ability. This class model can be included in the immersion program.</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">SUCCESSFULNES IMPLICATIONS</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">Once the program was run, many possibilities could be happened. Many unpredictable problems are possibly to happen. There is always failure possibility, but we can learn from the successful program of other countries in the world such as Canada, Australia, Brunei Darussalam, etc. The closest countries we can learn are Australia and Brunei Darussalam. Australia is very popular in the world with Benowa late immersion and Brunei Darussalam with its bilingual education program (EFL).</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 150%;">It is very important for the teachers and education department to have such a study tour or study comparison to Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, etc. which have been succeeded on the immersion program.They can learn and observe the immersion program in those countries, so that they have good description about immersion program and know how to run immersion program. In the future, teachers training or sending them to study in English speaking countries are very important. Because of we will need much more teachers for the continuing the program in particular when we want to extend the program. The teacher must not always an English teacher, but also they can be other specialist teachers who have English background or bilingual teachers. The most important thing is they have high motivation, integrity, and loyalty to succeed the program. As Berthold (1995, p. 259) says; </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">‘No one element in the choice of immersion program stands alone. They are all inextricably linked and intertwined with one another. Whatever is decided, there must be long-term planning and resourcing designated to ensure success. Why start what will not be finished?’ .</p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"> </p> <p class="MsoSubtitle" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style=""> </span>Reference:</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Berthold, M. J., 1993. The staircase model: Language awareness to content teaching. In <i style="">Proceeding of the First Biennial Conference (pp. 38-46). </i>Newcastle: Australian Association of Language Immersion Teachers.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Berthold, M.,1995. Initiating an immersion program. In Berthold, M. (Ed<i style="">.). Rising to the Bilingual Challenge</i> (pp. 252- 274). Canberra: NLLIA.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Berthold, M.,2003. Study Book. <i style="">Immersion Language Teaching</i>. The University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Baker, C., 2002. <i style="">Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism</i>. 3<sup>rd</sup> edition. Multilingual Matters LTD, Sydney.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Jones, G. 1992. The expectations and limitations of bilingual education in Negara Brunei Darussalam. In <i style="">Conference Proceedings of the Ninth National Languages Conference (pp. 162-1720. </i>Darwin: Australian Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p>Irulhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14766984531916867287noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1959192401588001588.post-76262441715226900382010-11-23T05:47:00.000-08:002010-11-23T05:53:16.597-08:00The Legend of Banyuwangi (my country)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><strong><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Georgia;" >The Legend of Banyuwangi</span></strong><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" ></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><em><b><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >Folklore from East Java</span></b></em><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" ></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" ><br /><span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 204);">Once upon a time in Sindureja Kingdom, King Sidareja was talking to his vice regent, his name was Patih Sidapaksa. The King asked Patih Sidapaksa to give him the flesh of a young deer.</span></span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >Patih Sidapaksa took the mission.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >When he arrived at the jungle, he saw a young deer. He pointed his arrow to the deer. Unfortunately, he missed the target. He ran after the deer. He was running and running until he arrived at a hut. Patih Sidapaksa knocked the door.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >A young and beautiful girl opened the door. She was very beautiful. Patih Sidapaksa fell in love at the first sight.“How can I help you Sir?” asked the girl.I...I...am looking for a young deer, Patih Sidapaksa was speechless.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >You can find a lot of deer in the jungle. But it s already late and it will be dark soon. You can continue hunting tomorrow morning. You can come and spend the night here. Both my father and I are happy to welcome you, said the girl.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >Patih Sidapaksa accepted the offer.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >He introduced himself. The girl s namewas Sri Tanjung and her father s name was Ki Buyut.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >In the morning, Patih Sidapaksa continued his hunting and after he got a young deer he returned to the hut.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >He came back because he wanted to marry Sri Tanjung.Luckily, Sri Tanjung also loved him.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >Later Patih Sidapaksa asked them to join him to the palace.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >The King was very happy Patih Sidapaksa brought him a young deer.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >However he was also amazed by the beauty of Sri Tanjung.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >The King also fell in love with her.The King had a bad plan. He wanted to marry Sri Tanjung. So he gave Patih Sidapaksa a very difficult mission. The King asked Patih Sidapaksa to give him three golden rings from Indran Kingdom. Patih Sidapaksa knew the mission was more difficult than hunting a young deer. Indran Kingdom was not an ordinary kingdom. It was a kingdom of criminals! No one ever came back after going there. However he still accepted the mission. And before he left, he asked Sri Tanjung to wait for him.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >After Patih Sidapaksa left, the King approached Sri Tanjung. He proposed Sri Tanjung to marry him. He promised Sri Tanjung to be a queen. She did not accept the proposal. She loved Patih Sidapaksa and she already promised to wait for him. The King was angry and put her in the jail.Luckily, Patih Sidapaksa could do the mission and came back to the palace. Sadly he could not meet Sri Tanjung. The King lied. He said Sri Tanjung was in jail because she asked the King to marry her. The King said Sri Tanjung wanted to be a queen.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >At first Patih Sidapaksa believed the King. But Sri Tanjung then said.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >Throw me to the river. If the river smells good, it means I m innocent.However if the river smells bad, then the King is lying, said Sri Tanjung.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >Patih Sidapaksa then threw her into the river.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >Amazingly, the river smelled good.Patih Sidapaksa was very sorry. Sri Tanjung died. He regretted not to believe her.</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >When the river smelled good, people instantly said Banyuwangi...</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >Banyuwangi... .</span></p> <p style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 51);font-family:Georgia;" >Banyu means water and Wangi means good smell.Since then the place is named Banyuwangi. ***</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p>Irulhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14766984531916867287noreply@blogger.com0